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		<title>WUENSCH Bernhardt, 2001-01-09</title>
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		<dc:date>2011-11-18T12:26:13Z</dc:date>
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		<dc:creator>Sophie Jourdin</dc:creator>


		<dc:subject>solid state ionics</dc:subject>
		<dc:subject> [SIGLES UTILIS&#201;S]</dc:subject>
		<dc:subject>oxydes m&#233;talliques</dc:subject>
		<dc:subject>chimie physique</dc:subject>
		<dc:subject>polym&#232;res</dc:subject>

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&lt;p&gt;Bernhardt Wuensch is Professor of Ceramics with the Department of Materials Science and Engineering at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. He received his Bachelor and Masters degrees in MIT's Physics Department, and his PhD in Crystallography. He has been at MIT since his undergraduate days with a short interlude at the University of Bern, Switzerland. &lt;br class='autobr' /&gt;
Professor Wuensch has given us an interview full of interesting observations both on the history of Materials Science and (&#8230;)&lt;/p&gt;


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 <content:encoded>&lt;div class='rss_chapo'&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;csfoo htmla&#034;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span class='spip_document_264 spip_documents spip_documents_right' style='float:right;'&gt;
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&lt;strong&gt;Bernhardt Wuensch&lt;/strong&gt; is Professor of Ceramics with the Department of Materials Science and Engineering at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. He received his Bachelor and Masters degrees in MIT's Physics Department, and his PhD in Crystallography. He has been at MIT since his undergraduate days with a short interlude at the University of Bern, Switzerland.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Professor Wuensch has given us an interview full of interesting observations both on the history of Materials Science and Engineering and on the history of MIT.&lt;/p&gt;
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		&lt;div class='rss_texte'&gt;&lt;p&gt;BERNHARDT WUENSCH (BW) : Materials have been around for a long, long time. Glass making was already a flourishing industry in Egypt in 5,000 BC. Pottery is usually one of the landmarks in the evolution of civilization. In fact we are used to designating the level of a particular culture by the materials they used. Neolithic, bronze age, iron age, and this will probably be known as the silicon age. It is a witty observation I can lay no claim to, but it is valid. But the difference between what we know as materials science and engineering today is that these older crafts, and such they were, were strictly empiricist. They did not understand what was happening. To use ceramics, my field, as an example : the word ceramics is derived from the Greek keramos, which means burnt stuff. You take a plastic blob of clay and throw it in a fire ; and suddenly it becomes hard, maintains its shape and becomes impervious to water. Exactly what goes on in that process, called sintering, was not unravelled until the mid-1950s. All sorts of complicated physical and chemical changes take place. The clay minerals that make up most clays, predominantly kaolinite and montmorillonite, are hydrous silicates. The water of crystallization goes off, organic material that is invariably present in clay gets burnt off and then little bridges begin to form between the crystallites. These grow and coarsen, and gradually, rather than having a few grains that are tenuously stuck together, you have grains that are bonded with big vacancies in between the grains. And then the grains grow and the boundaries between them grow and some of these voids become enclosed in the solid. It is a tremendously complicated process driven by diffusion and vaporization processes that we now understand. But the early refractories industries, the clay industries, were based purely on empiricism. And when a particular mine closed down and the supply of kaolin dried up, the processing industry had to start all over again, and work out new procedures from scratch.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;In the area of materials, and I would now include metals, ceramics, polymers, and more recently electronic materials, not just semiconductors but also magnetic and optical materials, the four main classes of materials, underwent a transformation from empiricism to something founded on a firm basic understanding. When these materials made the transition from a low-cost, high-volume, primarily structural material (steel in the case of metals ; basic structural ceramics, sewer pipes ; bath room fixtures, dishware and so on in the case of ceramics) to something that was very high-tech, a case where the development of a particular device was limited by the materials available, and improving them required knowing precisely what went on. And what justified this effort was that this was a transition to a very high-technology, high value added application. So, in the case of metals one went from steel girders as metals of construction to high-temperature alloys that went into jet engines and things of that sort. And to achieve those properties and to push those limits required a fundamental understanding of what was going on. In the case of ceramics that transition came perhaps 10 or 15 years later. And some of the driving forces for that transition...&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;ARNE HESSENBRUCH (AH) : &lt;i&gt;Which decades are you referring to ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;BW : For metals the 1940s and 1950s, for ceramics the 1950s and 1960s. The real breakthroughs there were first driven by magnetic oxides in the very late &#8216;40s early &#8216;50s. That began with the radar developed during the war effort. One had to use materials that were magnetic but also electrically insulating because the high-frequency electromagnetic radiation employed would induce currents in an electrically-conducting material causing detrimental heating.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Another application of magnetic oxides was the random-access computer memory, developed here at MIT by Jay Forrester. The material employed is typically a ferrite, and these are double oxides of a general composition, AB2O4, where one of the ions or perhaps even both is a transition metal ion carrying a permanent magnetic moment. Typical compositions today might have five or six different cation components in them &#8211; some to control the conductivity, some to create a direction of easy magnetization, some to impede grain growth as the materials is sintered (because you would like small crystallites to prevent the material from splitting up into magnetically twinned domains). And these materials are engineered on a solid understanding of the physics and chemistry of the materials involved.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;The other great impetus came with the advent of the space program, and in particular the development of materials for rocket nozzles and for reentry vehicles. I was in graduate school in those days, the early 1960s, and worked summers at a company involved in the nosecone project for the Apollo program. The initial approach to the problem, to get rid of all the heat caused by the vehicle entering and reentering the atmosphere, was to make it out of a gigantic casting of copper &#8211; copper being a good thermal conductor and the heat would thus be conducted away into other regions. But that was not terribly efficient : these things were huge, 10 feet in diameter : gleaming and shining, marvellous pieces of technology and materials processing and development. The next stage, largely developed by the company that I spent the summers with, a collaboration that lasted for 15 years, used ceramic materials because they have much higher melting points. 2500-3000 degrees centigrade is not uncommon for simple ceramic materials such as aluminum oxide and magnesium oxide. Simple low-cost materials, but very refractory, very high melting points. But they have one liability and that is that they are very brittle. So the technique that was worked out by the Space Systems Division of AVCO Corporation, in Wilmington, Mass., was again to make a massive ceramic forging of something like magnesium or aluminum oxide, and then avoided the brittle problem by using a refractory metal such as molybdenum or tungsten, formed in the shape of a honey comb &#8211; that would provide the strength and resistance to fracture. So this was a composite material. And then, as goes on in many industries, the final and ultimate solution was to make it out of plastic !&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;span class='spip_document_260 spip_documents spip_documents_right' style='float:right;'&gt;
&lt;img src='https://www.sho.espci.fr/sites/www.sho.espci.fr/local/cache-vignettes/L140xH198/Wuensch_img2_bethe_hans_-b61b4.gif?1737519461' width='140' height='198' alt=&#034;&#034; /&gt;&lt;/span&gt; &lt;strong&gt;Figure 1. Hans Bethe.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;This was a theory that was in part developed by one of the great figures in physics : Hans Bethe at Cornell University, who worked as a consultant at AVCO. He developed the theory of ablation. One can, for example, take an ice cube and direct a blow torch on it, and even though ice melts at 0 degrees Celsius, the ice cube will sit there coexisting peacefully, well not peacefully, but coexisting with the blow torch flame, because the flame melts the ice and distils it off as steam and that soaks up the energy. The ice behind that rapidly changing interface survives the nearby high temperature. Well, the notion with the plastic heat shield was exactly the same. The plastic would char, ignite, and burn away, but what was underneath that decomposing layer was at a low temperature and the vehicle and the astronaut inside were protected. So that was an evolution of use of different materials as the understanding of the properties evolved.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;To recap : in the early days of the field we saw this transition from an empirically based technology, variable and not controllable, to an era when the fundamental physical properties were understood on the basis of rational chemistry and physics and applied sometimes in extremely complicated contexts &#8211; to a case where one could design and improve materials and push limits. At that time, the field was aligned very much along specific classes of materials. There was a metals industry, there was a Journal of Metals, there was an American Society for Metals. There were industries : US Steel and so on. They were based on metals, and even particular sorts of metals. The same was true of ceramics. There were very large refractory companies that made abrasives and grinding wheels. Norton in Worcester, Massachusetts, was one example. Their whole product line was crystalline ceramics. Corning Glass, as the name indicates, was working with amorphous oxides.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;There was, and still is, an &lt;a href=&#034;http://www.acers.org/&#034; class=&#034;spip_out&#034; rel=&#034;external&#034;&gt;American Ceramic Society&lt;/a&gt;, a Journal of the American Ceramics Society, departments of ceramics or ceramics engineering. And so there was a complete system of education, professional identity, industries, and academic enterprises that were centered upon one particular class of materials.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;It happened a little bit later with polymers. The polymer program here at MIT sprung up in very different ways. Curiously, a large part of it was initiated in Mechanical Engineering, simply because the development of the new fibers, nylon and rayon, required a completely different set of machinery to spin and weave these fibers. They had very different physical properties from natural fibers like silk and wool. So again the need for a transition to a new, higher class, engineered sort of material required mechanical engineering &#8211; people to learn something more about polymers in order to process them. But again, back in that era, apart from synthetic fibers, when you thought of plastics you thought of some inexpensive kids' toy that would break in 36 hours and you did not really care because it cost next to nothing. Or you thought of polystyrene foam coffee cup, but you did not think of high-technology conductive or optical materials. And that has now become the case.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;And then finally with the transistor and electronic devices, one of the great revolutions in our culture. The additional class of materials, silicon, electro-optical materials, came into being.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Finally it dawned upon people that even though these were materials with different properties and problems, having to be processed in different ways, everyone was really doing the same thing. They were looking at the connection between structure on all of its scales, from electronic and atomic arrangements to the arrangements of crystallites in a solid to more massive structures such as iron reinforcements in concrete. Everyone was looking at the connection between structure on all its scales and the way a material behaved. Increasingly, engineers had to learn to use these different classes of materials in concert. My favorite example is an electronic chip. It has a ceramic substrate, usually aluminum oxide, on which electrically active semiconductor elements are deposited and then etched and shaped and changed in composition. You need to have that thing talk with the outside world, so you need metal contacts in order to connect the electronic components to some circuitry. And then to protect this very small-scale structure, you encapsulate the whole works in a polymer. So, for someone to design such devices, he or she had to be familiar with all four major classes of materials, and the interfaces between them and how they behaved. The devices would not be possible without that sort of understanding. Or on the more science-oriented activities : someone who is operating a sophisticated instrument like a Secondary-Ion Mass Spectrometer to measure very shallow composition gradients on the scale of &#197;ngstroms, or someone who is using a sophisticated electron microscope of ultrahigh resolution that allows you to actually see the individual atoms (actually more rigorously : projected columns of atoms in thin film form). They could call themselves a metallurgist, a ceramist, or an electronic materials person, merely depending on what sort of material they put in their instrument. Techniques were the same &#8211; sure : the information they were trying to extract and the uses to which it was to be put differed, but still they would all do the same thing independently of the particular class of materials. So that was really the birth of a materials science. It was when this concern with structure and properties began to transcend different classes of materials and the technology required that materials were used in concert. Now there are companies, particular the semiconductor companies that are involved with all these materials, and people have to understand the basic science of the classes of materials and the engineering.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;span class='spip_document_261 spip_documents spip_documents_right' style='float:right;'&gt;
&lt;img src='https://www.sho.espci.fr/sites/www.sho.espci.fr/local/cache-vignettes/L300xH203/Wuensch-_img3tetrahedron-6cea4.jpg?1737519461' width='300' height='203' alt=&#034;&#034; /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Figure 2. Sch&#233;ma du tetrahedron&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;The &lt;a href=&#034;http://www.quest.arc.nasa.gov/space/team/flemings.html&#034; class=&#034;spip_out&#034; rel=&#034;external&#034;&gt;Merton Flemings&lt;/a&gt; tetrahedron of materials science, structure, properties, processing, and performance [cf. figure on the right]. To me processing and performance are pretty synonymous, but this is a very current view nowadays. The older view, and it is one that I still like because of the similarity between properties and performance, is a two-dimensional matrix with the classes of materials as one way of slicing the field and then materials science and engineering as orthogonal cuts to this : the concern with the properties and the processing and performance of materials from all of the four major classes. It is interesting that the older societies, such as the American Society for Metals, which used the acronym ASM, still uses the acronym, but it is now called &#8220;ASM International : the Materials Society&#8221;. So they have pushed metals alone off at arm's length. They are staying with the times.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;AH : &lt;i&gt;What about the demand for interdisciplinarity ? I have heard accounts that materials science as a uniter of all these different strands was primarily a political decision. It is very difficult to unite across departments of a university, and so interdisciplinary laboratories were created from above, in which this interdisciplinary work could take place. In other words, in addition to the development of a logic of the field itself, there may also have been an outside demand pulling the different strands together.&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;BW : Probably one of the great difficulties in any university setting, particularly a busy one like MIT, is that people are involved in a certain set of problems that they are very knowledgeable in and very excited about, and they can find more than enough for themselves to do. This means that you are perfectly happy working in a particular area and perhaps even achieving prominence in it, but you are really too busy to reach out and think about collaboration. This was particularly true when there were walls between academic disciplines and departments that were far more impenetrable than they are now. There are several observations that might be made. First of all, I think the evolution of materials science and materials engineering as a name in the academic enterprise is something that happened naturally. It was not created by decree. Many of the people who worked in metals had backgrounds in chemistry, and that is also true of many of the people who were transforming ceramics science, developing a ceramics science from empiricism. They primarily had chemistry backgrounds and more rarely a background in physics. But the people doing condensed matter physics were really anxious to be at a frontier and not do practically-oriented engineering investigations. Again the old generalizations don't stand up, but for most people this was the case.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;span class='spip_document_262 spip_documents spip_documents_right' style='float:right;'&gt;
&lt;img src='https://www.sho.espci.fr/sites/www.sho.espci.fr/local/cache-vignettes/L268xH326/Wuensch_img_4_-_Gibbs-0177a.jpg?1737519461' width='268' height='326' alt=&#034;&#034; /&gt;&lt;/span&gt; &lt;strong&gt;Figure 3. Josiah Willard Gibbs.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Looking at the people who started the ceramics program here, the one I am most familiar with, one of the founders of the Ceramics Society was W. David Kingery whose background was in chemistry. He was a chemistry undergraduate at MIT, and did his doctoral work under the one solitary ceramist in the Department of Metallurgy. Kingery stayed on and became an Assistant Professor. All his friends and colleagues counselled him against it because there would never be more than one ceramist in a department of metallurgy, and he or she had better be interested in the refractories used in steel making. Similarly, a very influential person in the development of the Department of Metallurgy and in Metallurgical Engineering was John Chipman, who was Department Chair for a number of years and the leader of the Department during the critical years of evolution from empiricism. He used thermodynamic understanding, something that had been around for many years, since &lt;a href=&#034;http://www-groups.dcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/~history/Mathematicians/Gibbs.html&#034; class=&#034;spip_out&#034; rel=&#034;external&#034;&gt;Willard Gibbs&lt;/a&gt;, in order to bring rationality into steel making. That was an enormous contribution to the entire field. Kingery did the same with ceramic materials.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;AH : &lt;i&gt;When was this ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;BW : In the case of Kingery this was in the late 1950s, and the developments in steel were about a decade earlier. The Department of Metallurgy gradually became more diverse because the junior people brought in had wider interests than the narrowly metallurgist interest of the people already there. When I entered the Department in 1964, there were two people who had just joined. One was Harry Gatos, one of the founders of the &lt;a href=&#034;http://www.mrs.org/&#034; class=&#034;spip_out&#034; rel=&#034;external&#034;&gt;Materials Research Society&lt;/a&gt;, one of the first major materials-generic societies. He was brought in from the &lt;a href=&#034;http://www.ll.mit.edu/&#034; class=&#034;spip_out&#034; rel=&#034;external&#034;&gt;Lincoln Lab&lt;/a&gt; to work on the growth of large single crystals of silicon semiconductor materials which had the purity and the mechanical perfection to have the desired electrical properties. There was a young Assistant Professor whose name was Gus Witt who came to work with an electrochemist. Casting around is probably too strong a term, because he was not looking for something to do. But the person he had come to work with, Phil de Bruyn, had left MIT. He was South African and had a Dutch wife and wanted to return to that cultural setting. So Gus was left without a home. In those days a young faculty member did not usually get a 6 or 7 figure start-up grant of expenses for capital, but rather had to align him- or herself with a senior faculty member who, because of their standing and reputation, were well-endowed with funds. So Gus Witt collaborated with Harry Gatos on the semiconductor program. That was the nucleus of the semiconducting and electronic materials part of the department.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;I guess the main point I am trying to make with all these examples is that, at least at MIT, this did not happen artificially by decree. It was a natural evolution. This was not always the case. Once the notion began to grow and to make sense, I think it is fair to say that there were some universities that changed the name of their department to be in keeping with the times. Some universities, for example, had developed strong programs in metallurgy and ceramics, where the two existed side by side in two separate buildings. So this is the first observation : that the evolution in many cases was natural.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;AH : &lt;i&gt;And that this was a generational change ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;BW : Partly a generational change, but partly also driven by this transition from empiricism to a rational scientific basis. One of the things that MIT faculty in that period were very, very good at was this process of breathing new rationality and sound scientific fundamentals into many engineering disciplines that were really not far beyond empiricism. The science, chemistry and physics that they introduced were not really terribly sophisticated by today's standards. They had the knack of seeing the opportunity to bring this rationality into a field which otherwise lacked it. I mentioned the materials people, but there were people doing the same thing in other fields, in electrical and mechanical engineering and so on.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;AH : &lt;i&gt;And the theoretical tools that they were beginning to share were things like thermodynamics ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;BW : That is right.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;AH : &lt;i&gt;Any other theoretical tools that were beginning to be shared in the same period ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;BW : There is another interesting theoretical overlap. I began as a physicist but did my doctoral work in crystallography with one of the world's great figures in that field, Martin Buerger, who was a mineralogist in the Department of Geology, now &lt;a href=&#034;http://www-eaps.mit.edu/&#034; class=&#034;spip_out&#034; rel=&#034;external&#034;&gt;EAPS (Earth, Atmospheric and Planetary Science)&lt;/a&gt; &#8211; not earth, fire, and water ! Geologists had a long tradition of descriptive crystallography for minerals found in the field. They too became more analytical. There was a period in the early 1900s when at places like the Geophysical Laboratory under the &lt;a href=&#034;http://www.ciw.edu/&#034; class=&#034;spip_out&#034; rel=&#034;external&#034;&gt;Carnegie Institution of Washington&lt;/a&gt;, worked out phase diagrams for materials that were of geological importance : silicon oxide, aluminum oxide and so on. These were the major rock forming systems but these also turned out to be the materials that ceramists were digging out of the ground. And once you have dug them out and ground them up, they become a ceramic powder. The materials scientists, the ceramists and metallurgists were interested in making things, so they had an eye on kinetics and on how things changed upon application of heat and pressure.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;The systems that they worked with were relatively simple, chemically and structurally. The geologists however, were concerned with anything that Mother Nature had provided, so they delved into these enormously complicated silicates and other sorts of minerals, impure, all sorts of solid solution and chemical substitutions, incredibly complex structurally. But it was a static record. It was relatively late that they began to actively investigate phase transformations, something dynamic. The metallurgists and ceramists had been working on solid-state diffusion, oxidation, and corrosion processes for 20-25 years before the geologists became interested in measuring diffusion rates in silicates. They did so in order to understand the transformations that took place in rock implacements, particularly under pressure and hydrothermal conditions. And conversely, the aim was also to interpret the thermal history of the rock with knowledge of the kinetic rates. So there were two complementary views : one of complex materials and a static picture along with the materials science people who were working on similar issues but in a more dynamic sense with simple materials.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;AH : &lt;i&gt;It can almost be mapped by today's standard textbook. There will be chapters on the four major classes of materials : metals, ceramics, and so on ; and then there will be chapters on the properties (thermodynamics, electrical, optical, magnetic). And each of these chapters corresponds to the theoretical tools that were beginning to be shared by the communities you mentioned in the 1950s and 1960s. Would that be a reasonable way of describing it ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;BW : Yes. And another chapter that every textbook on condensed matter has to start out with is structure. This is atomic-scale structure in crystals and amorphous materials, but also microstructure : dislocations, imperfections, and vacancies. These control a great many properties to a larger extent even than the intrinsic properties of the material. Also interfaces. Unfortunately if you are writing a comprehensive textbook you cannot spend too much time on this sort of thing. My field of interest and passion &#8211; crystallography &#8211; is one that is often slighted. I took a lot of ribbing from my colleagues when I joined the Department of Metallurgy : &#8220;You are going to have it easy. There are only three kinds of crystal systems : body centered cubic, face centered cubic, and complex !&#8221; There was some truth as a basis for that kind of sardonic view. Even today the great majority of materials used in ceramics are cubic. Not all, but the majority are structurally simple.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;But then you asked about, since this was becoming valuable in technology, valuable to government enterprises based on those technologies, once the value of this interdisciplinary work was perceived, were there ways to encourage people to work in this interdisciplinary mode ? There were indeed. In the late 1950s, there was an effort to do this that arose in the Department of Defense, from an agency then called &lt;a href=&#034;http://www.darpa.gov/&#034; class=&#034;spip_out&#034; rel=&#034;external&#034;&gt;DARPA&lt;/a&gt; (Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency). This was shortly on the heels of the discovery of the transistor and the great potential for this device in electronics and communication, and therefore in defense. The people in DARPA had the wisdom to realize that, in order to capitalize on the electronic properties of semiconductors, one would have to understand the chemistry of producing these materials and the way of growing single crystals of unprecedented perfection. This brought in the chemists, it brought in the crystal growers and the materials scientists. You also needed to understand the physics of these very complicated electronic structures and the way of controlling them through doping and through creation of proper interfaces. The only way to make any progress on this was to bring together in one place people who were interested primarily in solids but who came to this area bringing the perspective, instrumentation, and the skill and expertise of their particular discipline with a view to collaboration in a very close fashion &#8211; that is, not only formulating but also conducting the research. It was probably the late 1950s, before I came on the scene as a faculty member, that DARPA went around to probably a dozen or more research universities &#8211; saying : Hey, do we have a deal for you ! We would like to come and make a building for you in which you might care to house the majority of your people working on problems in condensed matter. Initially, the emphasis was on semiconductors, because that was the driving force for this investment. I believe twelve sites or so were selected, perhaps initially ten with two created later. But that was the origin of our Building 13, directly behind the great dome. That building was constructed during the early 1960s and we moved into it in 1965. It housed a great part of the Department of Metallurgy and Materials Science, as the name had evolved by then. Each name change was won at great expense by the Department Chair, since obviously people who had been trained as metallurgists resisted. That united them in a way that nothing else in academia could have done. You can imagine the furor arising from our grand alumni when the word metallurgy disappeared altogether.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;In any case, the new Building 13, the Center for Materials Science and Engineering housed, on its 4th and 5th floors, a major portion of the Department of Materials Science and Engineering : the entire ceramics and electronic materials groups, the polymers group (which grew and increasingly took residence on the 5th floor). The electrical engineers, those who were interested in the materials aspects of devices, were on the 3rd floor. On the 2nd floor were the administrative headquarters and the condensed matter physics group. The latter has grown considerably since that time. Parenthetically : this new creation was the second major interdisciplinary laboratory at MIT &#8211; the first was an outgrowth of the Radiation Lab that developed radar in the famous wooden Building 20, since deceased, and Building 24. It is now called the &lt;a href=&#034;http://www.rle.mit.edu/&#034; class=&#034;spip_out&#034; rel=&#034;external&#034;&gt;Research Laboratory of Electronics&lt;/a&gt;. At the end of the war many of those people who had been brought together for purposes of the defense effort dispersed and went back to their home institutions. But some stayed on and that was the birth of the Research Lab for Electronics. This was another benchmark in the evolution of interdisciplinary work. In this case it was primarily Electrical Engineering and attendant design - some materials work. That came into being shortly after the war, early 1950s.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;The charter for the Center for Materials Science and Engineering (and the organization had slightly different names at different institutions) was that first you will conduct materials research in a highly interactive and interdisciplinary mode &#8211; and faculty from as many as seven different departments at MIT had participated in the programs. These workers were to be grouped together in teams called Areas of Thrust in early semiconductor research, but later broadened considerably. The other thing that was visionary was the realization that in order to conduct first-class research one needed sophisticated, first-class equipment &#8211; constantly evolving and growing more sophisticated. This was too expensive to obtain for any single faculty member or small group of faculty. And moreover, for it to be effective and working at capability, it required support staff. So, the second mandate besides creating these funded, collaborative, and interdisciplinary research teams was to establish central research facilities. For a time, the Center had as many as 12 different central facilities. The next thing the sponsors did was to seek to convert young faculty to this interdisciplinary mode of operation. In order to do so they provided seed funding. It was an unabashed attempt to seduce young faculty into these interdisciplinary teams !&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt; &lt;i&gt;AH : Seed funding refers to a couple of years' funding which would then be taken over by the hosting university ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;BW : No. The Center operated under a block-funded federal budget. Seed funding was intended to provide an opportunity for a young faculty member, someone who might otherwise not be attracted to participate in the interdisciplinary teams. To develop this connection they wanted to get to them early and make it worth their while to not identify only with their peers in their own department. The hope was to fold such young faculty into one of the Areas of Thrust. There were also some features of this program that were almost without precedent : a great deal of local autonomy was given to the Director of the Center. The Director decided what problems to address on the basis of the resources unique to the particular host university. Rather than having these Areas of Thrust (generally speaking there were three or four) monitored by some program director in Washington, they were monitored locally. And this Director presumably would be gutsy enough to pare off the team members who were not interacting sufficiently or whose expertise was no longer needed for a new direction to be taken. It was a thoroughly enlightened view that somebody on the scene would be better equipped than someone down in Washington. This is not true, even in individual research grants, today. The NSF gives grants on the basis of promise, and once you have received the grant you can change minor details, but you cannot start off doing ceramics and then suddenly decide to do fruit fly genetics &#8211; at least not without major questioning from the NSF division. Other agencies, the Atomic Energy Commission, and then the Department of Energy, wrote not a grant but a contract : and you had to be very specific about your research. You had to prepare a work statement from which you could not depart without permission of the program director.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;This made the Materials Research Laboratories very lean and fast on their feet. If something came up, they could change direction instantly. One of the great success stories here was in high critical-temperature oxide superconductors. When &lt;a href=&#034;http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1987/index.html&#034; class=&#034;spip_out&#034; rel=&#034;external&#034;&gt;Bednorz and Muller&lt;/a&gt; made their earth shaking discovery [of superconductivity in ceramic materials], any number of people dropped what they were doing and began bootlegging efforts to identify these phases and understand this peculiar behavior &#8211; which is still not well understood. The Director of our Center for Materials Science and Engineering at the time brought together everyone at MIT who was interested in these materials, and obviously that number was rather substantial, and selected individuals to develop an area of thrust. And with one or two months' notice another Area of Thrust was cancelled : one concerned with defects in semiconductors. Now that may seem like a very courageous thing, but in fact many of the people working on these defects were also interested or even more interested in superconducting materials. People were working in everything from growing single crystals of the materials for basic property measurements. People in condensed matter physics ended up using these crystals &#8211; some very, very critical measurements in magnetic ordering and magnetic correlation lengths. That was the first clue that something in the magnetic moments of copper ions was critical to this behavior. Other materials scientists were interested in learning how to make polycrystalline specimens, so that the superconducting properties could be used in making better magnets. Since these were not metals, unlike all previous superconductors, it was not at all clear how you would wind them into solenoids to make high-strength magnets. That particular part of the effort at our Center led to the first US patent granted for processing of an oxide superconductor, and in fact it eventually led to a very successful spin-off company.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;The only other thing that needs to be said about the program is that it evolved over time. The typical tour of duty of the Director was five years because by that time the necessary decisions had offended enough people for a new Director to be brought in. The change came towards the end of the Eisenhower administration, when Eisenhower coined the famous phrase : the military-industrial complex. There was a growing concern that the military had control of and sponsored much work, such as basic research in the space program, and that this belonged more properly in the civilian sector. So, at that time, the leader of the Senate, Mike Mansfield, tagged onto the Defense Appropriation Bill an amendment named after him, that confined the military to weapons systems and maintenance and support of armed forces. But they should not be in a position of supporting basic science. That is also interesting historically because one of the prime sources of funding for basic research prior to that had been the Office of Naval Research. They supported a lot of very fundamental science that had only indirect long-range connections with naval defense systems. So the amendment brought about momentous changes : the National Science Foundation's budget was beefed up ; it grew exponentially. I think NASA was set up at approximately this time. It absorbed space programs that had been conducted under the auspices of the Air Force and the Army &#8211; I think it is fair to say with considerable overlap and duplication. I think that also the Atomic Energy Commission and the Department of Energy came about then too. The military aspects of atomic energy stayed in the hands of the military, but the peaceful uses were spun off to the civilian agency.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;What happened to the Materials Research Laboratories ? The NSF was very impressed with the success of this approach. The whole justification of it is that the net effect should be far and away above what could be achieved single investigator grants. And these investigators might or might not collaborate. There was arguable evidence that this was the case. The NSF toured these Materials Research Laboratories and announced that they would take over the sponsorship of the program.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Things stayed in this form until about seven years ago (1994), when there was some concern that, successful as the program was, it appeared to have become an old boys' club, in that there was no sunset clause. True, the programs were reviewed every three years with a major site visit lasting several days ; proposals were critically reviewed by outside referees, as is the case with any research proposal. Nevertheless, there were some materials activities at universities that were better than others, perhaps because of a critical number of faculty involved and also, one might say, because of the quality of these universities. I am aware that this may sound smug and immodest, but the situation was ripe for sour grapes, and there was a lot of grousing. Politically, a lot of states realized that a way to give the state economy a boost was to start up a research university that attracted industries and created jobs leading to tax revenues and so on. So there were sour grapes. And the MRL program had indeed gone on for a long time. It was competing with a similar program that had been created during the Reagan era. This was created as a response to Reagan's address with words to the effect that we needed to get this country going again, to be competitive and to rev up the economy. The NSF went to Reagan with a proposal to create something called Science and Technology Centers. Very similar in concept to the Materials Research Centers, with two exceptions : 1) they had a sunset clause in them (seven years) ; and 2) they were to focus on a specific problem, and could not shift and change, grow and evolve. They had a much greater emphasis on the outreach to technology and to the professional community : newsletters, training courses, bridges to industry to implement the technologies were integral to the Science and Technology Centers. So we had MRLs (successful, but oh, what have you done for us lately), and the S&amp;TCs. And about seven years ago, just after a director of the NSF had resigned and the directorship of the Materials Research program had changed hands, Congress decided that the entire program should be looked at anew. As the result of a study that took place over a very, very short period of time, the system was changed into something called the MRSECs (Materials Research Science and Engineering Centers). I love the name because as an acronym it is gender blind : they can be either Mrs. Ecs or Mr. Secs ! A masterful political ploy. They supplanted both the Materials Research Laboratories and also the Science and Technology Centers. The funding level remained pretty much at a comparable level. Now there is a notion that, for the older programs, the bar should be raised consecutively at the time of renewals and there should be a chance for creation of some new MRSECs. This is taking place : some of the older MRLs have lost their support and new programs have come into existence, as MRSECs.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;So much for institutional support ! But that was a conscious effort to advance materials research in general but also to deliberately foster this interdisciplinary, collaborative mode of work on materials.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;AH : &lt;i&gt;You have talked about the theoretical developments, from the institutional perspective, and the funding. Is there a story to be told about the history of the instrumentation ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;BW : When one discusses the history of instrumentation one immediately gets very specific. There are tools such as electron optics that have had a wide application from medical science to inorganic materials research : physics, chemistry, and geology and so on. It was a tool with unprecedented resolution. But it gets very specific. It is true of the way I have operated on my own research path. I always kept an ear to the ground to new apparatus that might provide something new in terms of precision, resolution, or more flexibility, or permit doing something that could not previously be done. Often, these new instruments came into being in fields that were distinct from your own area. Apparatus has become increasingly complex, and companies have made new designs and developed them to a high level. The advent of powerful computers have changed research in a major way. The speed and means of collecting data, the way in which it is analysed, the sort of analysis of a problem that can be undertaken have all changed in ways that could not have been anticipated a few years earlier.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;i&gt;Fin de l'enregistrement&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
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&lt;p&gt;&#171; Entretien avec Bernhardt Wuensch &#187;, par Arne Hessenbruch, 9 January 2001 &lt;i&gt;Sciences : histoire orale&lt;/i&gt;, &lt;a href='https://www.sho.espci.fr/spip.php?article133' class=&#034;spip_in&#034;&gt;https://sho.spip.espci.fr/spip.php?article133&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;
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&lt;p&gt;Entretien avec Bernhardt Wuensch, par Arne Hessenbruch, 9 January 2001&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Lieu : Dibner Institute, USA&lt;/p&gt;
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&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href='https://www.sho.espci.fr/spip.php?article133' class=&#034;spip_in&#034;&gt;Transcription&lt;/a&gt; : &lt;a href='https://www.sho.espci.fr/spip.php?article5' class=&#034;spip_in&#034;&gt;Arne Hessenbruch&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Edition en ligne : &lt;a href='https://www.sho.espci.fr/spip.php?article79' class=&#034;spip_in&#034;&gt;Sophie Jourdin&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
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<item xml:lang="fr">
		<title>WHITTINGHAM Stanley, 2000-10-30</title>
		<link>https://www.sho.espci.fr/spip.php?article132</link>
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		<dc:date>2011-11-11T22:33:28Z</dc:date>
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		<dc:language>fr</dc:language>
		<dc:creator>Sophie Jourdin</dc:creator>


		<dc:subject>Armand, Michel B.</dc:subject>
		<dc:subject>Whittingham, Stanley</dc:subject>
		<dc:subject>solid state ionics</dc:subject>
		<dc:subject>Goodenough, John B.</dc:subject>
		<dc:subject> [SIGLES UTILIS&#201;S]</dc:subject>
		<dc:subject>alumine b&#234;ta</dc:subject>
		<dc:subject>chimie physique</dc:subject>

		<description>
&lt;p&gt;Michael Stanley Whittingham is one of the main figures in the history of rechargeable batteries. From the late 1960s until now he has examined promising materials for use as cathode, anode, or electrolyte. He pioneered the use of titanium disulfide for cathodes, now commonly used. He also initiated the concept of intercalation. This term refers to the insertion of positively charged ions into the cathode material. In a rechargeable battery, Li+ ions are typically inserted between layers of (&#8230;)&lt;/p&gt;


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 <content:encoded>&lt;div class='rss_chapo'&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;csfoo htmla&#034;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span class='spip_document_257 spip_documents spip_documents_right' style='float:right;'&gt;
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&lt;strong&gt;Michael Stanley Whittingham&lt;/strong&gt; is one of the main figures in the history of rechargeable batteries. From the late 1960s until now he has examined promising materials for use as cathode, anode, or electrolyte. He pioneered the use of titanium disulfide for cathodes, now commonly used. He also initiated the concept of intercalation. This term refers to the insertion of positively charged ions into the cathode material. In a rechargeable battery, Li+ ions are typically inserted between layers of the titanium disulfide cathode while the battery is being charged, and then de-intercalated during discharge. That the process of intercalation and de-intercalation of ions leaves the basic structure of the host material intact, so that the charge and discharge can take place repeatedly, was an understanding forged in the 1970s and early 1980s, and in which Whittingham played an important role. He has also been prominent in the field through the editing of its main journal, Solid State Ionics, from its inception in 1981.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Whittingham went into management for a number of years (1984-1988), while the field forged ahead. Japanese companies, in particular, made great strides in the commercialization of lithium titanium disulfide rechargeable batteries. When he rejoined battery research, the Japanese lead was becoming dominant, embodied in a raft of patents.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Since 1988, Whittingham has explored further materials with a view to improving batteries still further, both with regard to size and to performance. This will not change drastically the way in which the energy economy is currently organized (for example, the electrical vehicle is not around the corner), but smaller and more powerful batteries will impact upon the cost and design of portable electronics.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href='https://www.sho.espci.fr/spip.php?mot36' class=&#034;spip_in&#034;&gt;Biographie d&#233;taill&#233;e&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
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		&lt;div class='rss_texte'&gt;&lt;p&gt;STANLEY WHITTINGHAM (SW) : I graduated with a PhD in solid-state chemistry (from Oxford).&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;BERNADETTE BENSAUDE-VINCENT (BBV) : &lt;i&gt;So you were trained as a chemist, mainly ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;SW : Yes.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;BBV : &lt;i&gt;And why did you go to Stanford, with Prof. Huggins ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;SW : Because in my time almost everyone from Oxford came to the States for one or two years. That was expected if you wanted an academic or an industrial job. It changed a lot... 1968. And why Stanford ? It was on the West Coast, California had sun.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;BBV : &lt;i&gt;And your PhD was on tungsten bronzes ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;SW : That's right : tungsten oxides and tungsten bronzes.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;BBV : &lt;i&gt;And how did you choose this topic ? It was not that popular ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;SW : No, I think Oxford always had a very active program in solid state. There were three or four faculty there interested in solid-state.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;BBV : &lt;i&gt;Who was that ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;SW : Peter Dickins was my advisor ; and J. S. Anderson was head of the department. And Jack Lunette was also there, and he was interested in the theory of calxes. So initially we were studying (?) catalytic activity, and how all that changed with the changes in the electronic properties of the material. There was a great deal of interest in the crystal structure, or rather the band structure, that controls the catalytical activity.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;BBV : &lt;i&gt;So it was mainly for catalysis in Britain ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;SW : Right. And we chose a very, very simple reactant : mainly oxygen atoms, and we just looked at how they recombine at the surface. And this was at the time of Sputnik and the US Air Force paid for the research.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;BBV : &lt;i&gt;Even the research conducted in Oxford ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;SW : They paid through their London office. Because they were interested in how various species (?) reacted outside their space ships.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;BBV : &lt;i&gt;So it makes sense in fact.&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;SW : Right. And that was the topic of my masters degree mainly. And then we looked at the same materials as catalysts potentially for gas production. And the Gas Council paid for that research. But within a few months of me starting the research, they struck natural gas in the North Sea.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;BBV : &lt;i&gt;And you stopped the project ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;SW : No, they said : we are not really interested in what you are doing anymore, but you have got the money. Do what you want and don't bother us too much.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;BBV : &lt;i&gt;And in those days money was easy to get ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;SW : Oh yes, you turned down money in those days.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;ARNE HESSENBRUCH (AH) : &lt;i&gt;You mean this was the case between the oil crisis and the discovery of natural gas in the North Sea ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;SW : No, they discovered gas in the North Sea before the 1973 oil crisis.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;AH : &lt;i&gt;Why did the money flow easily ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;SW : Well, the money came from the Gas Council and they made gas basically from coal. So they wanted a better catalyst to convert. Natural gas avoids all that messy stuff. The rest is really history. London cleaned itself up because they stopped burning coal.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;BBV : &lt;i&gt;And then, when you moved to Stanford who was there ? And how was the lab ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;SW : I worked for Bob Huggins there. And that was quite a switch. In England, France, and Germany, solid-state chemistry was a respectable subject. Chemistry departments did solid-state chemistry. In the US you could count the number of solid-state chemists on the fingers of one hand. So I went to a materials science department, not to a chemistry department.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;BBV : &lt;i&gt;Was Huggins considered a solid-state chemist ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;SW : He was a materials scientist with a PhD form MIT and he set up a new centre for materials research at Stanford. His interest was in solid-state electric chemistry ; how ions move in solids and things like that. And at that time the Ford Motor Company had just discovered that sodium ions move very fast in a material called beta-alumina. Sodium ions move almost as fast in that solid as they do in a liquid.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;BBV : &lt;i&gt;So it was the time of the beta-alumina ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;SW : Yes. Ford published their data in 1967, and I went to Stanford in 1968.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;BBV : &lt;i&gt;Did you continue your research on tungsten bronzes there ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;SW : Yes and no. I measured the conductivity of beta-alumina. That is what we tried to do. We has to have electrodes that were reversible to electrons, so we could get a current, and to the ions that were moving. So we paid attention to bronzes that had sodium in them, to metallic conductors, to see if they would make good electrodes. So we have narrowed the Oxford work into the Stanford work.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;BBV : &lt;i&gt;And how did you develop the batteries using tungsten bronzes.&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;SW : I arrived at Stanford in February. In May or June of that year Bob Huggins left to go to Washington to run this whole suite of advanced research centres of materials (?) of which MIT is the last surviving. So he went there and manned those for about two and a bit years. I remained at Stanford and continued my research on the basics. And about the same time, there were others in the medical field who were interested in batteries for pace makers and things like that and there was a number of good silver iodide conductors... (?). And it struck us that sodium or potassium had an advantage over silver because they yield a bigger current. And that is where we got the interest in actually using them. Beta-alumina as the electrolyte and we thought of sodium and some oxides as the electrodes.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;BBV : &lt;i&gt;And how did you come to your favourite, titanium disulfide ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;SW : Ah, that is a jump.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;BBV : &lt;i&gt;Yes, because you took the patent out in 1973.&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;SW : Right. While I was at Stanford a number of other people, in particular Hector Ball, who was Professor of Applied Physics and associated with the Materials Department. He was contacted to find people to go to Exxon who were starting up a new corporate research lab. Exxon really had very few chemists and physicists at the time. So I did an interview at Exxon and one at Cornell, and I was offered a job in the Materials Science Department at Cornell, not the Chemistry Department. About a third or a half of the faculty in Materials Science Departments in the US are physicists and chemiusts... they have PhDs in physics or chemistry, not in materials science.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;BBV : &lt;i&gt;Incidentally, do you think that physicists have had an impact on your field ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;SW : Oh yes. At Exxon they made me a very nice offer. What they had built up was an interdisciplinary group. It was led by Fred Gamble, who had also come from Stanford. His interest was in superconductivity. And that was the first wave of superconductivity. What we tried to do then was to look at (?) tantalum disulfides. And by intercalating different molecules between the sheets of tantalum disulfide we could change the superconductivity transition temperature. So, tantalum sulfide became superconducting, I think it was at 0.8 degrees Kelvin. By putting in different molecules you could raise it to about 6 Kelvin. It turns out that the one that could raise it the highest was potassium hydroxide. And my first job was to try to understand what was going on. And what I found out was that basically potassium ion structure was particularly stable in TaS2-... It behaved like a salt ... there was again of energy ... (?).&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;AH : &lt;i&gt;Where was this new Exxon lab placed ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;SW : It was across the street from a refinery in Linden, New Jersey, along with a raft of other chemical and solids research labs. Basic research. And the goal was to be prepared since oil was soon going to run out. My part was energy-related systems, other than petroleum and chemicals.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;AH : &lt;i&gt;It was set up in 1972 and you were there from the very beginning ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;SW : It may have been set up in 1971, but basically yes.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;BBV : &lt;i&gt;How many people worked with you on this project ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;SW : The group headed by Fred Gamble : there was about six of us. Each one of us had a different background. Fred Gamble himself was something like a physical chemist, there was an organic chemist, some were physicists.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;AH : &lt;i&gt;Presumably you had plenty of funding for equipment and the like ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;SW : In those days, if you needed something for your research you asked for it, and it would be there in a week. Money was no issue. They invested in a research laboratory like they invested in drilling oil. You expect one out of five to pay off.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;BBV : &lt;i&gt;Was it perceived as a long-term project ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;SW : Yes.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;BBV : &lt;i&gt;And what did that mean : 10 years ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;SW : 5-10 years. Industry has changed considerably since then. I would say after about 7 years they began to ask : well, what is going to come out of this ? By that point we had moved from tantalum sulfide, which is really no superconductivity material. We were looking at lighter materials : titanium sulfide. And we were looking at lithium, not potassium, because it turns out that potassium is very dangerous. And some time in this period a Japanese company had come out with a carbon fluoride battery which they used for fish floats. They fish at night and they need to see where their floats are. And that was a primary battery. This was the beginning of interest in lithium batteries.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;BBV : &lt;i&gt;So the initial interest came from Japan ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;SW : Well... we thought we could do something better. It was a high-voltage, one-shot, then you throw it away. And Exxon was only interested in rechargeable systems. They were looking to the electrical vehicle.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;BBV : &lt;i&gt;From the very beginning ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;SW : As soon as we started. We were only in energy, but we told them that we may have a battery and they immediately jumped to the notion of an electrical vehicle. And they in fact built &#8211; well it must have been in the mid-1970s &#8211; a 3W and diesel hybrid vehicle running on the roads.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;AH : &lt;i&gt;Presumably the Japanese were also interested in the EV at this early stage ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;SW : No, they were not interested at all. In the mid-1970s some Japanese companies started selling calculators with solar systems built in.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;AH : &lt;i&gt;In other words, they focused only on smaller batteries than those employed for vehicles ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;SW : Yes. And it is important to make the point that no battery company came up with any inventions. Every invention coming from Japan came not from a battery company. They had a device they wanted to take to the market. Sony, Sanyo. It is a straight busines. They do not stray from where they have been.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;BBV : &lt;i&gt;And from where did you get your techniques in intercalation chemistry ? Did you receive training in this already in Oxford ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;SW : Well, the tungsten bronzes are quite similar in this respect sodium, lithium, or hydrogen in and out. There was interest in electrochromic displays in the late 1960s early 1970s and so we were all familiar with them. You have tungsten dioxide and you put in in acid adding a bit of zinc. It generates atomic hydrogen and turns into a solid going from yellow to blue.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;BBV : &lt;i&gt;Yes, but when the mixed conductors started, I think there was something of a change in intercalation chemistry.&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;SW : Yes.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;BBV : &lt;i&gt;Was there any feedback from your research at Exxon to intercalation chemistry ? Or was it isolated as a completely industrial research lab ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;SW : No, I think we had a huge impact. At the time Bell Labs were doing similar things. They were located close to us, they were a similar group, also with many individuals from Stanford. We were competing head-on for a while, also in publications. If you look at our publications on the battery, you will see a lot of basic science with no mention of batteries at all. Exxon clearly did not want to disturb their aura (?).&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;AH : &lt;i&gt;What journals did you publish in ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;SW : Electrochemical Society, Materials Research Bulletin. But the electrochemical stuff came after the basic stuff. So much of the basic stuff went into the MRB which had a very strong reputation in those days.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;BBV : &lt;i&gt;So, you have been working on titanium sulfide for many years ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;SW : I started working on that when I joined Exxon in 1972, already in October. As soon as we started work on it we realized that it had very interesting physical properties. So my colleagues like Art Thompson ... (?). After a year we knew about that material than anybody in the world.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;AH : &lt;i&gt;May I ask a couple of questions about the early period before we get advance too far chronologically ? Would you please contrast the appearance of the labs at Oxford, Stanford and Exxon ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;SW : Sure. Oxford was an organic chemistry lab. We were in the old wing of the building, built probaly at the beginning of the last century. The walls are three feet thick. There was mercury all over the floor and under the floorboards. It was an antique place. But most of the facilities were there. It was all set up for solid-state work, because the head of the department was a solid-state chemist. We had some of the first NMR ... (?). It was, I would not say state of the art but, pretty good for those days. And what people don't realize is that there was no such thing as an electronic calculator. The computer we used took up a whole Victorian house and it had less power than one of those [pointing to a PC].&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;AH : &lt;i&gt;What was your working day like ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;SW : If you were running an experiment you stayed there. There was no computer. If you were lucky you had a chart recorder. change temperatures... (?) You built your own equipment, you could not buy it.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;BBV : &lt;i&gt;Was the equipment different in Stanford ? Was it a shock ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;SW : Stanford was a new building. The Center for Materials Science had been built just a few years earlier. The building was new, most of the equipment was fairly new, though soime of it was surplus from (?). But the change was more going from a chemistry department to one of materials science. There were no fume hoods in the buildings. It was much more electronically oriented and obviuously the computers at Stanford were then better than those at Oxford. And after maybe a year there, a hand-held calculator costing about $95 came out. ..... (?)&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;BBV : &lt;i&gt;And that was important for your own field ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;SW : Yes, because we wanted to measure how fast ions move. We made the first measurements over the first 5 or 10 seconds. You can do it with a chart recorder but it is very difficult.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;BBV : &lt;i&gt;And at Exxon ? Did you have everything you needed ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;SW : You had everything you wanted within reason. It was a new set-up and wanted to get it going right. Their attitude was that our time was much more expensive than the equipment.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;AH : &lt;i&gt;Were there more technicians at Exxon than the other two places ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;SW : No, I would say it was almost the opposite. Oxford had more support staff than any place in the US. We had a huge machine shop, a huge glass-blowing shop. And you had the old business of artisans in what were called shops. They would do new things for you, but they expected you to do anything routine by yourself. If it was complicated, they would do it for you.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;AH : &lt;i&gt;And in the US you would buy in ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;SW : Yes, there you tended to buy stuff. There was some support staff but nowhere near the same. These days there is almost no support staff.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;AH : &lt;i&gt;But the impact of the computer has generally speaking been more marked in later periods than the one we are talking about now, right ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;SW : Yes, when did the PC arrive ?&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;AH : &lt;i&gt;I think it was about 1986.&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;SW : And I was at Exxon from 1972 to 1984. We came up with a battery patent early on. We had an incredibly good patent attorney. They would write up your invention and then ask you : why can't you do it this or that way ? And they came up with ideas for building a battery fully charged or fully discharged. TiS2 patent... (?)&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;BBV : &lt;i&gt;And did you publish more patents or more articles during your time at Exxon ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;SW : More articles because one of the goals was to get Exxon better known as a research institution so they could hire better scientists. And there was some pride with the president of the company that he wanted to compete against Bell Labs. So he wanted us to be perceived as the labs of the energy business. One of the presidents was E.B. David (?) who subsequently became head of the board of Science Advisors or something like that. He wanted Exxon to be known as the best place in the world.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;BBV : &lt;i&gt;So they valued research over patents ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;SW : Both.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;BBV : &lt;i&gt;Was not there a tension between the two in the disclosure of results ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;SW : Yes. The publications did not mention batteries at all. So we made materials and we described how we made them. We then discussed their scientific behaviour, how they reacted with water, their thermodynamics. But anyone smart enough would know what we were doing. They soon caught on. And I think about 1975 or 1976 when the first patent started coming out we released the first paper in Science Magazine. And about the same time we also published ... (?). Because up to that time people in the battery business did not know what intercalation was. ...&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;BBV : &lt;i&gt;Did you attend the Belgirate, Italy, meeting in 1973 that purportedly is the founding event of the community ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;SW : Yes, I gave two papers both of which went very well. And the other thing I remember is that Carl Wagner attended that meeting. He was very old. He basically put the field of corrosion on a scientific basis. He ought to have received a Nobel Prize.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;BBV : &lt;i&gt;Were there more Europeans there ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;SW : It was organized by Europeans, and I think there were more Europeans. And I remember that I was there with my wife and two young children. We bailed out half a day early because they said it was going to snow in the Alps, in order to go back to England.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;AH : &lt;i&gt;Were there any Japanese present ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;SW : Yes, I think there were a few.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;AH : &lt;i&gt;So you agree with the interpretation that this was a founding meeting ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;SW : Yes.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;AH : &lt;i&gt;One might also point to the beginning of the journal Solid State Ionics (1980) as the origin of a community ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;SW : Yes, but by that stage we were already having annual meetings.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;BBV : &lt;i&gt;Did the journal make any difference ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;SW : Do you want a bit of history of the journal ? The North Holland folks then had an office in the US. I lived in New Jersey two miles away from the publishing editor. They published the Belgirate proceedings. And this editor said : we need a journal in this field. I was one of those who said : no we don't.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;AH : &lt;i&gt;Why did you think that ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;SW : I thought there were too many journals already, even at that time. There were few compared with today of course, but even so. So he said, you prove that to us and we will pay you to do it. So Hans Becker (?) and I sent out a mail to everyone in the community, saying North Holland was going to start this journal and was there any interest ? I fully expected to get negative feedback hbut 95% wanted it. So North Holland played every nice game and we could not say no.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;AH : &lt;i&gt;Did the journal then not change anything much ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;SW : Yes, the journal changed a great deal because it pulled all the papers together in one place. Remember in those days there were no journals such as Chemistry and Materials. Solid-state chemistry had just started and that was more high-temperature. And there was the Materials Research Bulletin. So papers were all over the place. So they convinced us to go with it. I had my arm twisted to edit it. Within one year we went from single-column to double-column format and larger-size paper. It basically took off straightaway.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;BBV : &lt;i&gt;The whole community decided to publish in this journal instead of in the others you mentioned ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;SW : Yes. They kept publishing in other journals also, but they knew that here they would have their stuff recognized .&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;BBV : &lt;i&gt;Was it a fast publication ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;SW : Five months. The goal was to get it out quickly. In those days the Materials Research Bulletin got things out in two months.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;BBV : &lt;i&gt;Let us come back to your career. Why did you leave Exxon in 1984 ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;SW : Exxon had one good thing about them. It was run by scientists and engineers, not by lawyers or MBAs. I will give you an example. When we had come up with the battery, the board of directors came to the lab to listen to us. And they then said here is the money, now go and do it. So they built an applied film group costing millions of dollars, a very good one. It was like a poker game : well we make a big dollar or we loose it. Their philosophy was that if you were a good scientist then you would also be a good director. So within a few years I became a lab director. I am not sure exactly when but at some stage they said : now you have shown that you can manage something you know, so we will now send you off to manage something you do not understand. That is why I went to an engineering facility, where I headed their chemical engineering. I was responsible for technology, for synthetic fuels in those days, chemical plants, raffineries. It sounded challenging at the time and I stayed there four years. At that time began the shale oil and coal gasification (?). It was a booming period. My job was to employ as many chemical engineers as I could lay my hands on. But soon the writing was on the wall and the slump was coming. We started laying off people. We went from roary-rosy days to (?). And I was doing no science myself then. I missed that and that is why I went to Schlumberger. My first boss at Exxon went to the Metallurgical division there.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;BBV : &lt;i&gt;What kind of research did you do there ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;AH : &lt;i&gt;It was 1984-1988.&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;SW : Right. Schlumberger was in Richfield, CT, the lab was built and designed by a famous architect called Johnson, from Texas. One or two stories, glass, a very pretty building. You could not have your names on the doors or pictures on the walls unless they'd approve them. Schlumberger was then the Rolls-Royce of the oil field. They built very expensive analytical equipment which they put down oil wells to determine whether there was in fact any oil down there, what the rock foundations were like. They would put these probes worth millions of dollars down the well, pull them up very slowly and you would get wiggles and charts and things like that. And if they could reproduce the wiggles they would sell it. It was a very low-key company. In those days they probably made more money than all but two or three of the biggest oil companies. What they did not have was chemists, those who tried to understand what these measurements actually meant. They did have a large number of physicists and electrical engineers building the instruments. Then they decided to build up a basic rock science group, the job of which was to try to understand what was measured. And I went as head of the group, to bild up the chemistry activity with the engineers. One of the biggest electrolytes in the world is clay. It is clay in the formations that causes various forces to be formed in the earth and you can measure them.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;AH : &lt;i&gt;So you were not really moving to something completely new. This is the link to your previous field.&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;SW : Yes, but I had been doing management. At Schlumberger I was dealing with chemical engineers. But as my wife said, I was doing far too much travel. Schlumberger had labs in Texas, Connecticutt, Tokyo, Paris, and Cambridge, England. During my first year I was in the US maybe half of the time.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;BBV : &lt;i&gt;Is that why you stayed only four years there ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;SW : When I went there it was a booming organization run by a Frenchman (Ludeau ?). A whole book has been written about him. He died, and his chosen successor failed. There was a palace revolution. And a Scotsman was in charge, Ewan Baird (?), I think he is still in charge. At that point they were building a new chemistry facility in Richfield. They had put the foundations in, and he came in one day and said, no. Construction stopped. He ordered people back to basics. Schlumberger also had some TV stations back in France. They invested in other things. It was as if they only wanted to have Nobel Prize scientists : only the best was good enough. They did hire some outstandingly strong theoretical physicists. We looked at how oil flows through sandstone in rocks. Sprinkering (?) techniques ..very similar to how snowflakes build up on the window. Some people there did not like it : why are you doing this ? There was a reaction against basic science and people wanted to get back to building and improving equipment.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;AH : &lt;i&gt;Was the basic stuff modelling ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;SW : Yes, there was a strong modelling component and a measurement component. At that time we had about 30 people in this basic science group. We were told basically that we could become engineers or leave. We were given about 18 months. They were very generous. Some of the best people were in their 20s. Three of them were offered tenured professorships within a month.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;AH : &lt;i&gt;This is also the period of change from the mainframe to the PC.&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;SW : Yes, and Schlumberger was big on that. They had a Cray computer and Macintoshes. The theorists wrote their programs on the Macs and ran them on the Cray. Schlumberger also had e-mail, around the world. We were in touch with the Japanese and the French. That was really the first time that I used e-mail. They were well ahead.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;AH : &lt;i&gt;This must have been towards the end of your time there ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;SW : They had it from the beginning. Remember, they were well versed in how to get electronic information.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;BBV : &lt;i&gt;Did you go straight from Schlumberger to SUNY Binghamton ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;SW : Yes. At that time I decided that US industrial research activites had started on a down hill. Exxon had cut back on their basic research by about 50%. Seven years earlier they had doubled basically overnight. Then they had said : what would you do if we gave you twice as much money ? Give us a plan by Monday (that was on Friday). In my recollection we worked all that weekend. Within a week we had the doubled size.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;AH : &lt;i&gt;How would you account for the change in atmosphere, for the downturn in the mid-1980s ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;SW : A number of things : 1) oil prices had been going up but then they dropped ; 2) MBAs started getting into the business (short-termism ; now the stock price is more important than everything else) and then they looked hard at basic research. With regard to Exxon : it is a mammooth company. The corporate labs were under $50 million. When they doubled it, it got above $50 million. They rounded everything off into hundreds of millions. Anything under $50 million just did not appear in the balance sheet. 3) When the oil price went down there was no longer a sense of crisis. So you do not need any longer to investigate all the alternative forms of energy. Exxon had gone into solar, batteries, computers, a chip company. But Exxon did not really have the management expertise. At about that time Exxon sold all their battery technologies. They licensed them to a Japanese company, one American and one European. I think it was Sony in Japan. Exxon said : you mean you can not make $100 million a year on this ?&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;AH : &lt;i&gt;It would seem that the price of oil is a really good indicator of the field of solid-state ionics ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;SW : Yes. When Exxon got out, the whole field got out. The federal government cut funding, thinking that if Exxon was not interested, then why should we be.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;BBV : &lt;i&gt;So how did the field continue ? Where did the incentive come from ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;SW : Europe was continuing. The Japanese had our technology. There were a few problems with it. They wanted a safe anode ; they could not use pure lithium. ... (?) John Goodenough came up with cobalt oxide. That is almost double the voltage. Sony combined that with an interpolation compound of graphite as the anode ; and came out with what is called (?). The Japanese now have some 90% of the market for all lithium rechargeables. Sony has the primary licence making sublicenses. I think the patent is running out any day now. A number of companies toyed with getting into the business. Eveready two years ago started a plant and found that they could buy the batteries cheaper in Japan than they could build them themselves. The Japanese just have such a long lead time.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;AH : &lt;i&gt;Your personal choice of going back to academia. There was no future in industry you said...&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;SW : There was no future in industry and I wanted to do my own thing. In the mid-1970s 9 out of 10 solid state chemists were in industry. About that time chemistry departments in this country suddenly realized that this is a field. We want these people. Now, 9 out of 10 are back in academia.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;AH : &lt;i&gt;What impact did the return of solid state chemists to academia have upon the field ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;SW : In 1987 superconductivity happened. All solid state chemist jumped on board. The result was this symposium. Meeting in New Orleans. The largest room in New Orleans was not big enough.... [too much noise]&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;BBV : &lt;i&gt;The field suffered from the cold fusion affair ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;SW : Yes and no.... [too much noise] few people got involved in cold fusion&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;AH : &lt;i&gt;Characterization ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;SW : Computerization has accelerated the getting of measurement results.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Most of these batteries have maybe one or two years. They last as long as the product itself. As far as environmental concerns : they are pretty darn good. [noise]&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;AH : &lt;i&gt;Hybrid vehicles ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;SW : They are there. The Japanese have them. All that is needed is the political will to factor in the environmental advantages.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;BBV : &lt;i&gt;Oxide markets ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;SW : Electrochromic displays.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;AH : &lt;i&gt;Optimism when you started ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;SW : Optimism fuelled by end of oil. Now the end of oil is not in sight. But batteries are needed in the small electronic devices. The EV is not everything.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;AH : &lt;i&gt;Whom should we talk to : Frank, John Goodenough, Michel Armand.&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;BBV : &lt;i&gt;Hagenmuller ? Steele ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;SW : Steele is still active.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;AH : &lt;i&gt;Fuel cell relevance ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;SW : Fuel cells are much more active in Europe than in the US.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;AH : &lt;i&gt;For political reasons ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;SW : No, .. [noise]&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;i&gt;Fin de l'enregistrement&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
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&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href='https://www.sho.espci.fr/spip.php?page=sommaire'&gt;accueil du site&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
		&lt;div class='rss_ps'&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Pour citer l'entretien :&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&#171; Entretien avec Michael Stanley Whittingham &#187;, par Bernadette Bensaude-Vincent et Arne Hessenbruch, 30 octobre 2000 &lt;i&gt;Sciences : histoire orale&lt;/i&gt;, &lt;a href='https://www.sho.espci.fr/spip.php?article132' class=&#034;spip_in&#034;&gt;https://sho.spip.espci.fr/spip.php?article132&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&#8212; &lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Entretien avec Michael Stanley Wittingham, par Bernadette Bensaude-Vincent et Arne Hessenbruch, 30 octobre 2000&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Lieu : SUNY Binghamton&lt;/p&gt;
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&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href='https://www.sho.espci.fr/spip.php?article132' class=&#034;spip_in&#034;&gt;Transcription&lt;/a&gt; : &lt;a href='https://www.sho.espci.fr/spip.php?article7' class=&#034;spip_in&#034;&gt;Bernadette Bensaude-Vincent&lt;/a&gt; et &lt;a href='https://www.sho.espci.fr/spip.php?article5' class=&#034;spip_in&#034;&gt;Arne Hessenbruch&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Edition en ligne : &lt;a href='https://www.sho.espci.fr/spip.php?article79' class=&#034;spip_in&#034;&gt;Sophie Jourdin&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
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	</item>
<item xml:lang="fr">
		<title>SCHWEBER Silvan Sam, 2001-08-27</title>
		<link>https://www.sho.espci.fr/spip.php?article128</link>
		<guid isPermaLink="true">https://www.sho.espci.fr/spip.php?article128</guid>
		<dc:date>2011-11-10T14:32:16Z</dc:date>
		<dc:format>text/html</dc:format>
		<dc:language>fr</dc:language>
		<dc:creator>Sophie Jourdin</dc:creator>


		<dc:subject>solid state ionics</dc:subject>
		<dc:subject>chimie physique</dc:subject>

		<description>
&lt;p&gt;Silvan Sam Schweber &lt;br class='autobr' /&gt; ARNE HESSENBRUCH (AH) : Would you tell me what kind of physicist you were, please ? In order to illuminate your perspective on the history of materials science and engineering. &lt;br class='autobr' /&gt;
SAM SCHWEBER (SS) : Let me say a little about my background. I started my studies at City College of New York in 1944 as a chemical engineer. I migrated to chemistry, and in my last year at City College I took various courses in the physics department, one in particular with Mark Zemansky. It (&#8230;)&lt;/p&gt;


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&lt;a href="https://www.sho.espci.fr/spip.php?mot44" rel="tag"&gt;solid state ionics&lt;/a&gt;, 
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 <content:encoded>&lt;div class='rss_chapo'&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;csfoo htmla&#034;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span class='spip_document_244 spip_documents spip_documents_right' style='float:right;'&gt;
&lt;img src='https://www.sho.espci.fr/sites/www.sho.espci.fr/IMG/jpg/img_bis_schweber.jpg' width=&#034;318&#034; height=&#034;221&#034; alt=&#034;&#034; /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;csfoo htmlb&#034;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Silvan Sam Schweber&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
		&lt;div class='rss_texte'&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;ARNE HESSENBRUCH (AH) : &lt;i&gt;Would you tell me what kind of physicist you were, please ? In order to illuminate your perspective on the history of materials science and engineering.&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;SAM SCHWEBER (SS) : Let me say a little about my background. I started my studies at City College of New York in 1944 as a chemical engineer. I migrated to chemistry, and in my last year at City College I took various courses in the physics department, one in particular with Mark Zemansky. It became clear that I had greater interest in physics than in chemistry, so I went off to the University of Pennsylvania in '47 to become a physicist. The kinds of courses that people took in those days were atomic physics, a required course offered by Harnwell, who later became the president of the University of Pennsylvania. He had written a book giving an overview of atomic physics. I had a course on quantum mechanics with Ufford, and also one on electricity and magnetism. Walter Elsasser was there, and I did a course on statistical mechanics with him. The person I got closest to was a man by the name of Herbert Jehle, who had an interesting background. He was originally German, a Quaker, who was trained by Schr&#246;dinger and obtained his PhD in the early &#8216;30s in Berlin. He knew Einstein very well and was very much interested in general relativity. Under his aegis I got interested in general relativity, I actually wrote a Master's Thesis on variational principles in general relativity. He suggested that I transfer to Princeton, which I did in '49. To complete the story of Jehle : being a Quaker, he got into trouble with Nazi Germany during the 1930s, and left Germany in 1938 to go to France. When the war broke out in 1939, he was promptly interned in Gurs as a German citizen. Eventually the Society of Friends got him out of the concentration camp in France and brought him to the United States, where he taught during the war at Harvard, and then moved to the University of Pennsylvania. He did lots of interesting things. He knew many people at the Institute of Advanced Study at Princeton, Einstein, Weyl, and many of the younger people in physics there, in particular Finkelstein and Wouthuyzen. . He also worked with Pauling on molecular mechanisms of identification in biology. He was an interesting and impressive man. I came to Princeton in September 49, right after the detonation of Joe 1, the first Soviet atomic bomb, at the height of the intensification of the Cold War and in the midst of debates over the hydrogen bomb. John Archibald Wheeler had disappeared and gone off to make hydrogen bombs, first at Los Alamos and later back in Princeton at what became the Forrestal Center. Eugene Wigner, whose research assistant I became, was there, as was David Bohm. The general tone was set by Wigner, who was really very much a phenomenological physicist. He was skeptical about making ultimate and general claims. During the war he had been very much involved in building piles, working with Fermi at the Chicago Met Lab. Actually, for a year before coming back to Princeton, he had been the head of Oak Ridge, trying to get people interested in nuclear power. When he came back to Princeton in '49, after the advances in quantum field theory by Schwinger and Feynman, he did not get involved in these things. The kinds of topics he encouraged were illustrated by the theses his students wrote. There was a somewhat older student than I, Ed Jaynes, who had written a thesis on ferroelectricity. Another of his students, Ted Teichmann did a dissertation extending Wigner's R-matrix theory, a generalized S-matrix approach to nuclear reactions. Probably the person at Princeton who influenced me most was David Bohm, whose Advanced Quantum Mechanics course I took during my first year at Princeton. He had just finished writing his Quantum Mechanics textbook. He taught a very beautiful course which took into account the recent advances in quantum electrodynamics. He was very interested in many-body theory at the time. He had had Eugene Gross as a PhD student the year before who had done a thesis on plasma physics. David Bohm had worked on the description of plasmas at the Berkeley RadLab during the War. He had come back knowing a great deal about plasmas. The question addressed was whether you could apply the insights of plasma physics to the description of the valence electron gas within a solid. Eugene Gross worked on the classical theory of plasmas. Another person who was finishing at the time was David Pines. He did the quantum mechanical formulation of plasma theory that eventually became the Bohm-Pines description of electrons in metals, a subject that Wigner was very much interested in, because back in the early 1930s he was one of the founders of solid-state physics with Seitz. Wigner had worked very hard on the treatment of electron correlations. The question was whether the plasma approach could give a simpler way of describing electron correlations &#8212; that is, whether a collective way of describing electrons in a metal was a more effective way of describing them than the quasi-single particle approach Wigner had used in the 1930s.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;At Princeton physics and mathematics were rather close (Wigner was a professor in both departments). I became attracted to working with Arthur Wightman who was a young assistant professor at the time. This was particularly the case after David Bohm was not reappointed, and I started a thesis in (semi-)axiomatic quantum field theory with Arthur Wightman. Let me say something about the kind of training I received as a graduate student. Princeton was a little special in the following sense. The classes were small, as about 10-12 graduate students were admitted each year. The message conveyed to us was : &#034;we invited you and think highly of you, and we want to give you every opportunity to realize your potentialities&#034;. There were no formal course requirements of any kind. Instead, there was a hurdle consisting of a very intense three-day written general examination which covered all of physics : classical mechanics, electricity and magnetism, optics, quantum mechanics, thermodynamics and statistical mechanics, special and general relativity. After that, there were two-three hours of oral examinations overseen by groups of faculty members. The onus was really on us to get acquainted with everything in physics. I had taken statistical mechanics with Wigner, and as mentioned earlier advanced quantum mechanics with David Bohm. I also took various courses in the Math Department - with Spencer, Schiffer and Feller, but in the absence of actual course requirements I just took what I considered useful. There was also the Institute ; after 1947 Oppenheimer was its head. There were joint theoretical seminars every Wednesday, and every theorist at the university would go out to the Institute. During the period I was in Princeton, from 1949 till 1952, most of the presentations were at the frontiers of quantum field theory. During the 50s the Institute was the finishing school for young theorists and all the bright young people trained in the US and overseas would come there. I remember people like Van Hove, Frank Yang, Bryce deWitt, Feldman, Karplus. During my second year at Princeton Murray Gell-Mann and Francis Low were there. I finished my thesis in the spring of 1952 and after I got my degree, I went up to Cornell in the fall of 1952. The atmosphere at Cornell was very different from that at Princeton. Freeman Dyson was there in 1952-53, and of course Hans Bethe. They were in the Laboratory of Nuclear Studies, which housed that segment of the department involved in high-energy physics. The Nuclear Lab had a separate building. There had been earlier tensions between solid state and nuclear/high-energy physicists that had resulted in a rift in the department. What was characteristic of my 1952-54 experience at Cornell was the intimate relationship between theory and experiment, something I had not felt at Princeton. I don't mean to say that there was no active experimental work going on at Princeton. Dicke was there doing positronium experiments and various other things, in retrospect it seems to me that there were no fora for interaction in the way that existed at Cornell. As a post-doc at Cornell I attended a solid-state class with Overhauser, a young instructor at the time as well as lectures by Bethe on advanced quantum mechanics. Cornell gave me a different vision of what physics is about. One came to realize that high-energy physics was different from solid-state physics - both in approach and in status. It had been a little like that already before the war, then in terms of nuclear and solid-state physics, but this bifurcation became intensified after the war. The differentiation also manifested itself in the requirements on graduate students. What it took to become an experimental or a theoretical physicist differed at Cornell and at Princeton in one respect : during their first two years every graduate student at Cornell took the same classes : mechanics, electricity, magnetism, quantum mechanics, solid-state physics, nuclear physics, experimental physics. Experimental physics, a year-course, was required of every graduate student. Cornell also had a set of examinations, but these were less intense than Princeton's. At Cornell, just as at Princeton, one was expected to know most of physics. The specialization was limited. Solid-state and high-energy physicists were all still members of the same department, and the curriculum required of all graduate students encompassed all of physics.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;In 1954 I went as a research associate to Carnegie Tech in Pittsburgh. The atmosphere there was similar to the one at Cornell. There were some very good people there (the senior theorist was Gian Carlo Wick ; also in the department were Walter Kohn who had migrated from doing quantum field theory with Schwinger to doing many-body solid-state physics , and Julius Ashkin who had switched from being a theoretical physicist and became in charge of the Carnegie Tech cyclotron). I had to leave Pittsburgh after one semester and go back to New York, because my wife had fallen ill. I never returned to Carnegie Tech but accepted in the spring of 1955 a job at the recently established Brandeis - its first class had graduated in 1952. At that time Brandeis was essentially an undergraduate college, but it had a commitment to build a graduate school. In 1957 a graduate program in physics was started. The emphasis was initially heavily on theory because it is cheaper to hire and maintain theorists than experimentalists. In 1958 we started a summer school in theoretical physics that became well known and helped put Brandeis on the map. It was quite useful and ran through the late '60s. Partly by virtue of the emphasis on theory, the people we hired were predominantly engaged in field theory and general relativity. In 1957 Eugene Gross, who had been a student of David Bohm's, arrived, doing many-body physics. By 1960-61 it was recognized that we should have an in-house experimentalist program and experimentalists doing solid-state physics (Steve Berko) and atomic beams (Edgar Lipworth) were hired. The examinations to be admitted to candidacy for a PhD in physics at Brandeis were no different from the ones given at MIT or anywhere else in the country. Graduate students were expected to know what mesons and their properties were, even if they were to continue in solid-state physics. The training of graduate students was such that they did not have to make a decision whether they wanted to become experimentalists or theorists, and in what field, until the end of their second year of graduate studies. That continued until the mid-1960s. Entering graduate students mostly would want to become theorists, but if the faculty felt they were not quite strong enough, they would become experimentalists. It is certainly the case that by the early 1960s, one had a sense of sub- disciplines existing, that is that solid-state physics was a different branch from the rest of physics ; and that the same was true for high-energy physics. There were some overlap and mutual interests, for example in atomic physics where precision measurements involved quantum electrodynamics. Brandeis became well known in the late 1960s for doing experiments that determined the Lamb shift in positronium &#8212; Berko, Cantor and Mills did that experiment. Positron sources for the exploration of properties of the solid state is what Brandeis became famous for in experimental physics, and that was mostly due to Steve Berko. He had done positron physics before coming to Brandeis and really put positrons on the map as probes in solid-state physics. Until the 1970s support for all the research activities in the department came from two or three places : initially it was mostly the Office of Naval Research, then the National Science Foundation, and then the Air Force. There were no strings attached. You submitted an application and it was looked upon on its merits. The intent of the ONR and the Air Force was to have people trained, to have a pool of scientists available to meet national security needs and national educational and economic interests.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;During the 1960s the size of the physics faculty kept on increasing, as did the number of students, and as did the funding by the national agencies. From the mid-'50s on, computers were housed in the physics department and computer science was taught by the department. Max Chretien, who had been a high-energy physicist, had slowly gravitated more and more toward what we now call computer science. By the late 50s, early 60s, the physics department offered several courses in software and in hardware. Computing activities took up an ever-greater role, partly because the high-energy people required it. But it was also simply a way for the department to grow.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;By the early 1960s, we started having discussions at senior faculty meetings whether or not to hire a solid-state physicist rather then the brightest and ablest theorist. The demand of sub-disciplines had become assertive. That is the way the department is now run. There are sub-groups, semi-autonomous, quasi-departments. Discussions in the early 1960s still had a common background in questions such as : &#034;what is physics really about ?&#034; We had metaphysical discussions about what counted as more fundamental. By the late 70s and the early 80s, this kind of question had disappeared. It was now about where support can come from. This determined in part who would be hired. Another crucial questions became : &#034;Where would graduate students be able to find employment, and what kind of training should they obtain keeping that in mind ?&#034; It also became clear in the post-Vietnam 70s that only the very best theorists would find employment. And there was then a gradual shift of the balance of the department towards the experimental side and more students interested in experimental physics were admitted. Robert Meyer, an experimentalist who studies liquid crystals, came to Brandeis and started a program in that field. Gradually his group has become fairly large and one of his best graduate students has joined the faculty. Interest in using viral particles to test phase transitions and that sort of thing has become a part of the experimental activities of the department. There is also at Brandeis a research institute in biochemistry, molecular biology and biophysics called the Rosenstiel Center, that functions by having its research staff placed in various departments. Alfred Redfield, an outstanding experimentalist working in NMR, was appointed to both the physics and biochemistry departments. Over the last 15 years the focus of experimental physics has shifted toward biophysics, partly reflecting the fact that the greatest amount of support will be forthcoming in that area, and that graduate students obtaining PhDs in this area can go in many directions thereafter. The newest additions to the department in theory have been condensed matter physicists. There is a woman by the name of Bulbul Chakaborty who is a condensed-matter physicist, doing computational physics. I would say that she is now the leading theorist in the department doing that sort of thing. Two years ago we hired a young condensed-matter physicist by the name of Jane Kondev who has made a big difference. These are people well grounded in modern condensed-matter theoretical physics, and their interests are much wider than those of the high-energy physicists. They have the feeling that theirs is the way of the future ; that young physicists ought to be trained in this field when considering their employment upon graduation. What causes tension within the department is the fact even though there are on the faculty several outstanding high-energy theorists - people like Stanley Deser, Marc Grisaru, Howard Schnitzer - it has nonetheless become more and more difficult over the last 15 years to attract good graduate students. The very best go to Harvard, CalTech or such places. In a nutshell, that is what has happened in the Brandeis physics department. There has been a rethinking on what physics is about and what the mission of the physics department is.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;AH : &lt;i&gt;Is it a question of status ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;SS : Also.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;AH : &lt;i&gt;The way you described it was in terms of numbers of students. But are you also saying that solid-state physics used to be low status and that this has changed ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;SS : Yes, there is no question about that. I think that Brandeis, a secular university but founded, established and supported primarily by the Jewish community, felt that it had a certain mission. Clearly the conception of the university was such that &#034;pure&#034; contributions had a higher priority than applied ones, and in the sciences this meant theoretical physics and mathematics. Furthermore, as I said it is much cheaper to do theory and by virtue of the initial economic context at Brandeis, it was much easier to hire theorists rather than experimentalists. The initial bias was towards theoretical physics, and since until the mid-1970s high-energy physics was considered more &#034;fundamental&#034; than solid-state physics or what later became condensed-matter physics the theorists were either general relativists or field theorists. It was within the physics community at large that the question of status got rectified. It has to do with what solid state physicists did in superconductivity - using field theoretical techniques, and in particular recognizing the role and meaning of spontaneously broken symmetries in the description of the dynamics of such systems &#8212; that similar ideas were developed and then grafted onto quantum field theory in general, and a rethinking of the status of condensed matter took place. Phil Anderson was very influential in this both by virtue of his technical contributions, and because of his article in Science &#034;More is different.&#034; There were great theoretical advances in the late 60s and early 70s, in particular, the re-adoption of quantum field theory as the seminal representation of microscopic phenomena, because gauge theories conjoined with the Higgs mechanism for symmetry breaking seemed to be the right way to describe both the strong and the electroweak interactions. This after 't Hooft showed that one can renormalize gauge theories even if they have broken symmetries This led to what is now called the standard model. But ironically what happened at the same time was a recognition that what had been thought of as renormalization is really something very different, namely, an effective way of putting all the high-energy effects into certain observable parameters at low energy. For the most part you will not see anything of the effects of the high-energy processes beyond the cut-off energy you have introduced to make the theory free of divergences. It implied that even though renormalizable theories still had a special status, renormalization qua renormalization was not quite so important. More fundamentally, it implied that most theories that we know of, be they quantum electrodynamics, electroweak theory, or quantum chromodynamics, are only effective theories. They have a limited range of validity, the range being essentially the masses of the particles, which you need to introduce into the theory in order to explain the data, and which therefore reflect the context (the available energies) in which you are doing physics. People began to recognize that to some extent the theories that condensed-matter physicists used to describe superconductivity, liquid helium, or some such system, was as foundational for its domain of validity as the standard model was for the 0-200GeV range of subnuclear entities - the quarks, gluons and leptons.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;AH : &lt;i&gt;But that is an argument that will not be accepted by an older generation of physicists. I mean, this is the kind of thing that Paul Forman argues against, right ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;SS : Well, I would put it differently - and it is not meant pejoratively. Most physicists have become like chemists, in that they are exploring novelty in the world. They are creating new things, or new systems with new properties. And the power of the theory is such that they can actually pinpoint the elements that will give you the kind of qualities or properties that you want. There is still a subset of condensed-matter physicists who see their job as testing foundational issues - for example, &#034;Under what circumstances is describing certain processes as a Bose-Einstein condensation appropriate ? How does this depend on the number of particles involved ?&#034; - However, the foundational theories involved are not questioned. Since the 1970s more and more condensed-matter physicists think that conceiving of nuclei in terms of quarks is irrelevant. An atomic physicist doing experiments that determine the Lamb shift in various atomic states to some amazing accuracy, measurements that indicate structure at a smaller scale, does nothing of great consequence for chemistry, for most phenomena in chemistry do not depend on effects to that order of precision.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;There is a further observation. Since the late 1970s the impact of computers has been very great. It is a striking fact about both experimental and theoretical physics that much computer modeling takes place. People are now trained quite narrowly in modeling on the computer, so that computational physics has become a third branch of physics. There are so few things that one can do analytically by virtue of non-linearity that one has to do it on the computer. The results are really quite impressive. The rise of the role in the training of students in computer modeling is really very striking.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;AH : &lt;i&gt;Does that have a bearing on the solid-state vs. high-energy physics issue ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;SS : In theoretical high-energy, the impact of computers has been on how to deal with the complexity of perturbative calculations when you start to have 2 to 3 hundred diagrams to evaluate. You have programs where you draw the relevant Feynman diagram and the computer will grind out the finite radiative corrections at given energies or whatever else you are calculating. When you are concerned with real experiments and you have to compute radiative corrections and cross-sections, you people rely very much on computers, the calculations having become so complex. The use of computers among string theorists is much more having access to the web so that you can download the latest pre-prints available from Los Alamos. They log in every morning to learn what new preprint is available. From a sociological point of view the web - and the Los Alamos archive - has democratized high-energy theory : a researcher in Pakistan or Ghana has the information as readily available as the one at SLAC. Also there is a general recognition that physicists need to know a great deal about computing, if only because at the end of their graduate studies they could land a job on Wall Street if they are adept and innovative in modeling on the computer. I think you are right in saying that the older generation still feels that high-energy and elementary particle physics is more &#034;fundamental&#034; than condensed matter physics. I think it is quite painful for my colleagues in high energy theory at Brandeis to consider the possibility that once they retire the university will likely not replace them with someone in their field. They have invested their lives in this field. In high-energy physics and cosmology, where practitioners - still - set their own internal agendas, work gives meaning to lives in a way that is - probably - not the case in condensed-matter physics. For a condensed-matter physicist, solving a difficult and important problem is an impressive thing, and brings about many rewards both personal and communal, including the possibility of a Nobel Prize. The same is true for the high-energy physicists but in addition there is the feeling of being some kind of secular priest, for they believe that they are reading and writing the book of Nature, and formulating something ultimate about the world.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;AH : &lt;i&gt;That is certainly the way I perceived it as an undergraduate of physics in Freiburg, Germany, starting in 1978. Pure physics was supposed to be independent of the demands of society. It had nothing to do with the demands, say, of the nuclear industry or the military. That seemed to be the credo, whether it was correct or not. Solid-state physics was very small, and it was openly commercial. The solid-state physics institute actually paid students a salary to write their theses. It attracted some students but it repelled even more. Does that ring a bell ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;SS : In the US, the autonomy of physics departments was greater. There was a system of governmental funding until the end of the Cold War. One did not have to go to industry to get support for your students. In chemistry, funding for research and for students has always come in part from industry. In that field, a faculty member, as the principal investigator, would get a grant or a contract from a particular chemical or pharmaceutical company to carry out specified investigations of great value to that company and in this way obtain the funds to carry out the research and support his postdoctoral fellows and graduate students. In physics, it would not be unheard of during the 60s and 70s for a graduate student to go to Lincoln Lab or Oak Ridge to do his PhD thesis there, but it would have been very unusual to obtain a PhD for work done in an industrial setting.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;As an answer to your question : The older generation of physicists might deplore the fact that string theorists lack knowledge of general physics, because their field of activity is so close to mathematics. It is not that they look down upon it, but it is felt that as long as string theory is without empirical relevance it is not really physics. Since the 1980s there has been a great deal of exchange of techniques and knowledge between quantum field theorists and condensed-matter physicists, partly because experimental techniques have become so good that one can devise one-dimensional and two-dimensional systems. The exploration of two-dimensional field theories is thus of great interest to both sets of practitioners. They exchange insights about conformal field theories. But both are concerned with the constraints and relevance of experimental data. String theory thus far has little to say about experimental findings.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;AH : &lt;i&gt;Do young people who enter into high-energy physics nowadays also have these - shall we call it lofty aspirations ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;SS : I really don't know. There is some split. One type are the theorists who try to figure out what it means if the experimentally measured value of the m meson anomalous magnetic moment no longer agrees with the standard model calculations. Does it imply super-symmetry ? String theorists are not likely going to do that. They count states in black holes, so the division is more where you stand in relation to actual experiments.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;AH : &lt;i&gt;I don't understand the historical development of solid-state into condensed-matter physics. Could you explain that ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;SS : Solid-state physics was principally concerned with solids, primarily metals and semi-conductors. Gradually it became clear, partly due to field-theoretical methods, that what you learn about Fermi systems is equally applicable to electrons in solids and gases and liquids composed of He3 at low temperature.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;AH : &lt;i&gt;So it was an expansion ? When did this take place ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;SS : In the late 1950s and early 1960s. This is when field theoretic methods became powerful tools in the treatment of many body systems. This was also the time when Bardeen, Cooper and Schrieffer solved the superconductivity problem and when experiments on He3 were being done. You ought to ask Paul Martin or Henry Ehrenreich about this. There was a period in the middle 1950s to early 1970s when these field theoretical methods become standard components of the solid state physicist's toolkit. And since the field theoretic Green's function methods used allowed the consideration of the properties of the system as a function of temperature, phase transitions became an essential part of the field. Thus all phases - liquid, gases, solids - became the concern of the field.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Interestingly, there is a parallel development in nuclear physics. After the establishment of the Standard Model, nuclear physicists recognized that they had fallen upon hard times trying to understand nuclei in terms of nucleons, that the challenge was to understand how to go from quarks and gluons to mesons and nucleons. The field theoretical methods were used to understand the properties of nuclear matters, and diffused to such esoteric topics as neutron stars, and the collapse of supernovae. Incidentally, the development in that field in the United States can only be understood if it is remembered that the physicists who became high -energy physicists had been at Los Alamos during World War II and the most distinguished of them populated PSAC (the President's Scientific Advisory Committee) and setting the priorities for governmental support of the various fields of science. This began to change already in the late 1960s.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;AH : &lt;i&gt;Already ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;SS : Look at PSAC : In the 1960s there were almost no chemists on it. The support of science before and after Vietnam was different for many reasons. First of all there was the 1969 amendment of senator Mansfield about funding by the department of defense. Vietnam also marks end of the expansion of physics. The number of annual PhDs in the field began to decline.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;AH : &lt;i&gt;Where did Materials Science and Engineering enter into your world ? I imagine that when the interdisciplinary laboratory came into being at MIT in 1960, you must have noticed it. Did it look like physics to you ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;SS : We noticed it. The experimental approach resembled work in physics departments. But it was also like chemistry. My colleague and friend, Eugene Gross, had an interest in the statistical mechanics of polymers. I heard from him about polymers and polymerization. I went to the chemistry department colloquia. In particular, I remember a lecture in the mid-1970s by a polymer chemist from PennState in which he talked about designing polymers with specific electric and optical properties. The use of quantum mechanics to understand not elementary but complex systems and to make it the basis of a &#034;molecular engineering&#034; intrigued me. Later I discovered that Slater had such a vision already in the late 1920s after the advent of quantum mechanics.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;In 1973 we had another crisis because of the Arab-Israeli war and the oil crisis. This led to extensive investigations of solar cells - Henry Ehrenreich was head of the committee that was in charge of these activities. He went around to various departments asking what kind of materials are required to obtain such and such an efficiency. By that time materials science conceived in this &#034;applied&#034; way was recognized as a valid field of inquiry.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;AH : &lt;i&gt;So it became known to you as a problem, but not as a discipline ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;SS : Right. We did not see these activities as belonging in a department called Materials Science. No, I associated it more with polymer chemistry and with semiconductor physics. I think it came into greater prominence through these solar cells investigations, in these designs for capturing solar power.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;AH : &lt;i&gt;We are talking about the mid-1970s now ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;SS : Yes.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;AH : &lt;i&gt;And Brandeis does not have a Materials Science department, but much work done there could now well be done in a department with that name.&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;SS : Correct. Let me put it this way : I have some interest in the limits of computation. How far can you reconstruct the world if I tell you the foundational theory and the entities make it up ? Where does computational complexity put a stop to your efforts ? Every once in a while I go to Harvard to listen to material scientists talking about the design of materials by modeling on computers. What is striking to me is how uncritically they accept the foundational theory as formulated in their computer codes. They just model.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;AH : &lt;i&gt;Complexity is in a way also pure vs. applied. If you have the true foundational theory, then in principle you can calculate everything from it.&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;SS : Yes, until you are stopped by the complexity of the calculation.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;AH : &lt;i&gt;Right, and my point is that thinking about the world in this way is tantamount to accepting the notions of pure and applied science.&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;SS : To overcome the computational complexity you have to cleverly make assumptions simplifying the calculation. Organic chemists designing complicated biological molecules make up little models with hook-like forces and it works very well. The challenge to the theorist is how to justify such assumptions.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;AH : &lt;i&gt;I am trying to fit what you have told me to the demise of the pure vs. applied model. For instance in materials science, many people will tell you that the notions are outdated or that they are simultaneously doing both.&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;SS : I would argue that quantum mechanics differs from everything else in that it gives a highly accurate and stable foundational theory on the atomic level that can't be tampered with. Heisenberg called it a closed theory. You also know the basic entities populating that realm, i.e. electrons and nuclei. There is a confluence of theory and ontologies. In electroweak theory you can compute the anomalous magnetic moment of the electron to an unheard precision : of one part in 10 to the 10th. You never need that accuracy in materials science and what I am trying to say is that the foundational theory is secure. That is the reason that pure and applied no longer exists. Nobody doubts the accuracy, veracity, efficacy, and efficiency of the foundational theory. There is nothing these people do that probes the foundational theory.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;AH : &lt;i&gt;I imagine that an imaginary particle physicist in the 1950s would have said that one ought to find the foundational theory beyond quantum mechanics.&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;SS : Even though people really felt that the Schr&#246;dinger description of atoms is a limiting version of the more foundational theory, you did not have the means to show this. The 1960s provided the means to show that with the re-conceptualized notions of what renormalization means. Not that it is easy, but the foundational theory has been secured. More than that : any foundational theory beyond quantum mechanics must recover all the successes of the standard model : for example, the ability to account for the Lamb shift in hydrogen to the known accuracy, to account for the magnetic moment of the leptons to the known accuracy,...&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;AH : &lt;i&gt;It seems to me that the meaning of pure has shifted. When materials scientists tell me that they do pure and applied at the same time, they refer to calculating local densities of states and energy levels of an atom moving in a groove of a surface or some such thing as pure. But from the perspective of the old high-energy physicist that is not pure.&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;SS : Okay. I would phrase it differently : I would call it pure if the intellectual agenda is set by the practitioners without external considerations. Of course, with this definition of purity even high-energy physics - even though the practitioners set their own intellectual agenda - is not pure because it is supported by the government, etc. The same is true for people investigating the onset of turbulence. Clearly there are industrial applications, but that community also sets its own agenda and rewards research very much as high-energy does. It is a question of autonomy. Purity simply reflects the state of autonomy.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;AH : &lt;i&gt;So the shift in the meaning over time is interesting.&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;SS : It is difficult to phrase this - I can make it ad hominem. Your activity as an historian of science gives meaning to your life. You are trying to find out something ; it is personal and there is an intellectual commitment going beyond earning a living. I am not sure that a person at DuPont trying to figure out a better plastic gives much meaning beyond that of monetary reward and job security. There is of course the personal gratification if the challenge is met and the problem solved - and something useful is created - but I believe that success does not answer the quasi-metaphysical questions. So purity has something to do with going beyond what pertains to the economic and sociological sphere. I don't know how to make it sharper than that. Something about extradisciplinary rewards.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;AH : &lt;i&gt;The importance of which has declined ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;SS : In every field. Not just physics or history of science.&lt;/p&gt;
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		<title>PETTIFOR David G., 2002-12-13</title>
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		<dc:date>2011-11-04T15:31:52Z</dc:date>
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		<dc:creator>Sophie Jourdin</dc:creator>


		<dc:subject>solid state ionics</dc:subject>
		<dc:subject>chimie physique</dc:subject>
		<dc:subject>Friedel, Jacques </dc:subject>
		<dc:subject>IBM Zurich</dc:subject>
		<dc:subject>spintronique</dc:subject>

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&lt;p&gt;David G. Pettifor Director of Materials Modeling Laboratory, Department of Materials, University of Oxford, Parks Road, Oxford OX1 3PH, UK. &lt;br class='autobr' /&gt; DAVID PETTIFOR (DP) : Professor Hirsch told me that you might be interested in the fact that I wrote a short biographical sketch about the founder of our department, William Hume-Rothery (H-R). When he died in 1968 the TMS (The Minerals, Metals and Materials Society) in America set up an award, the William Hume Rothery Award for distinction in the (&#8230;)&lt;/p&gt;


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 <content:encoded>&lt;div class='rss_chapo'&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;David G. Pettifor&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;br class='autobr' /&gt;
Director of Materials Modeling Laboratory, Department of Materials, University of Oxford, Parks Road, Oxford OX1 3PH, UK.&lt;/p&gt;
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		&lt;div class='rss_texte'&gt;&lt;p&gt;DAVID PETTIFOR (DP) : Professor Hirsch told me that you might be interested in the fact that I wrote a short biographical sketch about the founder of our department, William Hume-Rothery (H-R). When he died in 1968 the TMS (The Minerals, Metals and Materials Society) in America set up an award, the William Hume Rothery Award for distinction in the science of alloys. This award has been given out every year. At the time of the millennium they decided it would be nice to have a special symposium to evoke H-R's science. Since I am based in Oxford, I was asked by the Committee to give a presentation, a biographical sketch. That was very interesting for me.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;BERNADETTE BENSAUDE-VINCENT (BBV) : &lt;i&gt;What is your background, in physics or chemistry ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;DP : I had registered at University to read Chemical Engineering, because I loved the chemistry laboratory at school. Fortuitously, I bumped into my old physics teacher just before the start of the university year, who persuaded me that physics was the most fundamental of the sciences. So I changed my mind and went into physics. I did my first degree in South Africa at the University of the Witwatersrand in Johannesburg, where Professor Frank Nabarro had built up a strong department of physics. I found my first three undergraduate years of classical physics pretty boring, being challenged mainly by some inspiring young lecturers in the Mathematics department. Fortunately, in my honours year we had excellent lectures in quantum mechanics and solid state physics. I was awarded a National Postgraduate Scholarship and came over to Cambridge at the Cavendish Laboratory in October 1967 to do my Ph.D. with Volker Heine in theoretical condensed matter physics. By the time I visited Oxford as a graduate student, H-R had already died, so that I never met him. So I found it intriguing to research a bit into his life and science, using manuscripts and correspondence in the Bodleian Library and interviewing his daughter Jennifer Moss. Here is the paper (D.G. Pettifor, &#034;William Hume-Rothery : His life and science&#034;, in E.A. Turchi, R.D. Shull, A. Gonis eds. &lt;i&gt;The Science of Alloys for the 21st Century : A Hume-Rothery Celebration&lt;/i&gt;, TMS, 2000, p. 10-32). H-R was the holder of a professorial chair in metallurgy endowed by the Wolfson Foundation.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;BBV : &lt;i&gt;What is the Wolfson Foundation ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;DP : Isaac Wolfson was a merchant trader in Manchester who set up Great Universal Stores (GUS), a mail order company, in the interwar period. He became very wealthy and was interested in supporting science and education. For instance, there is a Wolfson College in Cambridge and one also in Oxford. H-R got the first Isaac Wolfson Chair in 1966. Now there are Wolfson Chairs in various other universities around the UK.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;H-R basically was a chemist. He did his undergraduate degree in Oxford. You know the story : he was totally deaf. His family wanted him to enter a military career but meningitis contracted in 1917 left him totally deaf. He wanted to go to Trinity College in Cambridge where his father had been. But Trinity wouldn't accept him because he was deaf. He then came to Oxford's Magdalen College in 1918 to read Chemistry. On the advice of Frederick Soddy, he went to do his Ph.D. at the Royal School of Mines at Imperial College, London. He worked in Metallurgy with Professor Harold Carpenter. He specialized in the stability of intermetallic phases. They do not follow normal valence rules. In seeking for a solution to the stability of intermetallic compounds, H-R developed the concept of electron concentration as a controlling factor in structural stability. He got his Ph.D. from the University of London in 1925. In that thesis he came up with his famous electron per atom rule for the structure of noble metal alloys with sp-valent elements. At that time chemists had simple chemical valence bond rules. For instance, sodium chloride forms a stable octet system NaCl. So how to explain that intermetallics had crazy stoichiometries, like the sodium tin phases Na4Sn, and Na3Sn2 ? That was the start of the so-called Hume-Rothery rules. That was seminal work. [The &#034;Hume-Rothery rules&#034; on alloy phase behaviour were published in the early 1930s. The first two rules emphasize the importance of the atomic size factor and the electrochemical fact respectively, whereas the third rule concerns the role of the electron concentration (or electron per atom ratio)]. In Oxford the chairs have to be attached to colleges. Because metallurgy was considered as a &#8216;dirty' subject it was not attached to a proper, well-established college. St. Edmund Hall, on the other hand, was a very poor college, a not well endowed college. In the 1950s, they were trying to build up their reputation academically rather than just being famous for their rugby players and oarsmen. So when the metallurgy professorship was passed round the colleges, St. Edmund Hall picked it up so that the Isaac Wolfson chair is held at St. Edmund Hall. H-R was there, then Sir Peter Hirsch was there and I am there now. In retrospect, it has brought great prestige to the College because all the metallurgists at St. Edmund Hall have been elected fellows of the Royal Society.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;BBV : &lt;i&gt;Is metallurgy still prestigious now ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;DP : As you know, during the past forty years metallurgy departments around the world have transformed to embrace materials in general. This is reflected in the history of our own department where the undergraduate course was re-titled &#8216;Metallurgy and Science of Materials' shortly after the arrival of Sir Peter Hirsch as the new Isaac Wolfson Professor in 1966. Then shortly before his retirement in 1992 the name of the department was changed to simply &#8216;Department of Materials'. Nevertheless, metallurgy still plays a key role in the department with outstanding, internationally-funded research being performed on developing new process routes for metals and alloys. When this department was created industrial sponsors wanted undergraduate programs to train people for industry rather than the setting up of a purely research institute. In practice, our undergraduate numbers have always remained small (around 30) in comparison to the physicists, chemists and engineers with their annual intake of two hundred students each. Our sizable faculty is heavily supported by our successful graduate programs and postdoctoral research. Expansion to the green-field site at Begbroke was successfully carried through by our previous Head of Department, Brian Cantor, who persuaded the university several years ago to buy a recently constructed but then vacated laboratory 5 miles outside of Oxford. It is where we have spin-off companies with young researchers. The Oxford department is by far the top materials department in the country according to the latest research assessment exercise that the UK universities had. That is also true for teaching. It is not however, the biggest one.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;BBV : &lt;i&gt;Which is the biggest one ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;DP : This depends on how the counting is done, as many courses are joint with engineering departments. But, on undergraduate numbers, Birmingham, Imperial College and Manchester would be amongst the front runners.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;BBV : &lt;i&gt;Could you go back to the beginning of your own career ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;DP : At the time I joined Heine's group, the measurement and calculation of the band structure of how electrons move in materials was a major topic. I was given the project to develop an electron theory to explain the structure of transition metals. It was a theoretical project but it was a well known experimental fact that if you go across the transition metals series from yttrium to zirconium, niobium, molybdenum, technetium, ruthenium, rhodium and palladium the structure changes from hexagonal close-packing to a body centric cubic packing, back to hexagonal and then cubic close-packing. There was a theory, the so-called Engel-Brewer theory, that correlated the crystal structure of metals with the number of valence s and p electrons in the system. H-R did not believe in it.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;At that time the Cavendish Laboratory in Free School Lane was a very exciting place to work. Phil Anderson, who later got the Nobel prize with Mott, spent 6 months in Cambridge each year. Brian Josephson, who got the Nobel Prize for superconductivity, was the young star in our group. And Sir Nevill Mott was the fantastically charismatic leader of the Cavendish. They used to come to the seminars and inspired us younger researchers. Well I was very fortunate to be able to crack the problem I had been set, showing unambiguously that the structural trends across the transition metal series were driven by the changing number of valence d electrons, not the s and p electrons as claimed by Engel and Brewer. This work brought me for the first time directly into contact with the metallurgical community, in particular Larry Kaufman and his CALPHAD group who were developing a semi-empirical thermodynamic technique for predicting the phase diagram behaviour of multicomponent alloys. After completing my thesis, I then went down to London as a post-doc in the Physics Department at Imperial College. I had still not resolved my future career path, so shortly afterwards I went off to Tanzania to teach on a two-year contract at the University of Dar es Salaam. I did not want to go back to South Africa. In South Africa I was involved in student politics. I didn't want to go back as a white liberal. After two years in Dar es Salaam, I realized that emotionally and scientifically I wanted to work in Europe or in America. I returned to Imperial College for a year, then back to Cambridge as a post-doc for 4 years. During that time I did my work on the binding energies of the transition metals, performing some of the first-ever Density Functional Theory (DFT) calculations of total energies. In 1978 Bell Labs invited me for 6 months as a visiting scientist. I went to Bell Labs clearly with the idea of sorting out the underlying theory for the heats of formation of metallic alloys.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;BBV : &lt;i&gt;Well this was more or less like physics. When did you shift from theoretical physics to materials science ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;DP : I think I've never shifted in the true sense. I come from physics, but I have always had a very broad vision that encompasses the &#8216;dirtier', more complex world of the metallurgist or materials scientist. I deal with atoms and electrons. My colleague Adrian Sutton has been educated in this department. He is a materials scientist. He is more in tune with the microstructure, the mechanical properties of materials, which for myself have never been really close to my heart. I am much more into the chemistry, the growth of films, into the nanotechnology. My research starts from the fundamental quantum mechanical Schroedinger equation, but I have always enjoyed the challenge of extracting the essential physics, making simple models for explaining, for instance, the heats of formation. If you mix atom A with atom B, Pauling would say that a charge flows from the more electropositive atom to the more electronegative atom, thereby setting up an ionic bond. Therefore, if you have just this attractive ionic term, elements A and B should always mix. In practice, nearly half of all binary systems do not mix. In the mid seventies a Dutch physicist who worked at Philips, Andreas Miedema, came out with a simple generalization of the Pauling predictions for the heats of formation. You don't have just an attractive term but also a repulsive term and by a very clever adjusting of the parameters he could separate the sheeps from the goats, he could separate the alloys with positive heats of formation from those with negative heats of formation. Still the concepts he was pushing were ionic. My early expertise was in metals where concepts of ionicity and the ionic bond do not really make any sense due to the perfect screening by the conduction electrons in a metal. Whilst I was in Cambridge I had performed these first-principles density functional calculations - what everybody does now - what Walter Kohn got a Nobel Prize for. These density functional calculations allowed me to derive a rigorous understanding of the different roles played by the s, p and d electrons in transition metal bonding.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;BBV : &lt;i&gt;Did you start with transition metals ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;DP : My thesis took the fundamental scattering theory of electrons in metals and transformed it into a computational tool that allowed me to predict the structural changes across the transition metal series. You are looking at extremely small energy differences between one structure and another. The mathematical transformation that I did from scattering theory to the tight-binding model of Jacques Friedel, allowed the correct prediction of these very small energy differences.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;BBV : &lt;i&gt;What do you call a model ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;DP : Well, this is what physicists spend their whole time constructing and solving. We make approximations. When I came to Oxford ten years ago I set up the Materials Modeling Laboratory. People wanted me to call it the Laboratory for Computational Materials Science. I said no. Computing, solving numerically quantum mechanical or classical equations, is not the key step in providing insight into the complex world of materials and their properties. The critical step, the creative step, is finding a model that encompasses the dominant mechanisms of the complex process one is wishing to describe. Only then can we write our computer program to provide quantitative answers. Hence, I kept the name Materials Modeling Laboratory. But they laughed at me and said : Here you go with your plasticine.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;BBV : &lt;i&gt;So what is a model ? I guess it is not a small plasticine shape that you were trying to do.&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;DP : A model is an attempt to extract the essential ingredients, the dominant mechanisms that you feel responsible for what you want to explain. For example, you can take Walter Kohn's equations. They had transformed a many-body problem into a simpler one-body problem. I would not call that a model. That is a theory, the so-called Density Functional Theory (DFT). These equations are however, still very complicated. In order to be able to simplify these equations, we use a chemistry description. We imagine bonds between the atoms. We reduce very complicated equations by using a chemical bonding picture that is familiar to all undergraduates.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;BBV : &lt;i&gt;Do you mean that you transformed a matter of calculus into something visual ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;DP : No, although the underlying physics can be visualized in terms of chemical bonds, the model remains analytic. Take the heats of formation, for example. People at IBM and all around the world started DFT calculations with the help of computers : In order to calculate the heat of formation of a mixture of rhodium with palladium, for instance, they compared the total energy of the separate metals, namely 1,000,000 units of energy say, with that for the alloy namely 1,000,000.1 units of energy. The question was what is responsible for that very small energy difference of 0.1 ? I developed an analytic model. It was not based on the Pauling-Miedema model of ionicity but was based on the idea of the importance of the strong, covalent bonding between the valence d orbitals in transition metals. I can do that on the back of an envelope. Solve that model analytically and make the prediction that the heat of formation should change sign while you go through the transition metal series, depending on the average number of valence d electrons in the band. That model was published in &lt;i&gt;Physical Review Letters&lt;/i&gt; 42 (1979) 846 and there was a lot of controversy. The established community did not like it.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;BBV : &lt;i&gt;Why did they refuse it ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;DP : I tried to work in the spirit of what Wigner and Seitz did in 1933 when they applied quantum mechanics to the problem of bonding in metals. They solved for the binding energy curve of metallic sodium. They replaced the atomic polyhedron in the metal by a sphere which is a good approximation that you can solve. What they did in the early days of quantum mechanics for the sp-valent alkali metals, I generalized when I was in Cambridge to the case of the &lt;i&gt;elemental&lt;/i&gt; transition metals. For the &lt;i&gt;binary&lt;/i&gt; alloy the picture I had in mind was originally that of Miedema's model. It suggested that if you mix a metal A with a metal B, then you start by cutting out the Wigner-Seitz sphere for metal A and the Wigner-Seitz sphere for metal B and bring them together to form the alloy. I started with that model and tried to show that within DFT you could get an ionic term and a repulsive term like in Miedema's picture. But that was not possible. I realized that I could not justify Miedema's model and I went back to the more chemically intuitive tight-binding model, championed by Jacques Friedel at the time.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;BBV : &lt;i&gt;Could you clarify what you mean by analytic model ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;DP : Consider making a model able to predict the heat of formation of transition metal alloys. You start with a real transition metal. It has two types of valence electrons : free electrons and electrons more tightly bound to their parent atoms. The latter are more like the electrons in diamond, in the carbon atom. They overlap and give strong, covalent bonds. If you look at which element has the highest cohesive energy, it is not carbon, diamond or graphite, but actually tungsten which is a transition metal. It comes not from the free electrons but from the tightly-bound d electrons. The model relies on three simplifications that help understand the changing energy when A and B mix. The first simplification is the assumption that the d electrons are the critical electrons whereas the s and p can be neglected. The second simplification is that we assume a constant density of states throughout the d band. We don't want to calculate the exact electronic structure. The third simplification is that we assume that the atoms remain neutral, i.e. there is no net flow of charge from A to B on the formation of the alloy. I call it a model because it is a simple representation of reality, but it is a mathematical model. It is not a qualitative representation. It is a rigorous model because we try to make it internally consistent.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;BBV : &lt;i&gt;Which of these assumptions were controversial in your model ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;DP : The third one was critical. Miedema was unhappy about it. There was a big fight at Bell Labs with the person I worked with, who was also unhappy about this lack of explicit ionicity within my model. Nonetheless, I got permission from my bosses at Bell Labs for my paper to go out with myself as the sole author. But to show you the power of scientists at Bell Labs at that time : I went to Imperial College as a new lecturer with my paper already accepted by the &lt;i&gt;Physical Review Letters&lt;/i&gt;. Soon afterwards the editor wrote to me saying there was someone at Bell Labs who was submitting similar results. We would like you to withdraw your earlier paper and write instead a joint paper. I wrote back and said I am sorry but this question had already been officially resolved whilst I was at Bell Labs. So it came out just with my name on it. Finally, scientists at IBM Laboratories in Yorktown Heights did DFT calculations and confirmed the basic assumptions of my model.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Such models are important. You asked me why as a physicist I work in Materials Science. People in Materials Science found they could understand the concepts and use them to help design less brittle, more ductile alloys, for example. 15 years ago scientists and engineers at Oak Ridge National Laboratory were attempting to stabilize &lt;i&gt;cubic&lt;/i&gt; close-packed phases of the titanium alumini rather than the naturally occurring &lt;i&gt;tetragonal&lt;/i&gt; or &lt;i&gt;hexagonal&lt;/i&gt; binary phases which were very brittle at room temperature. I had recently ordered the structural database of binary compounds within a simple two-dimensional structure map. Conventionally, structure maps had been constructed by taking coordinate axes to reflect those physical properties which were deemed important for controlling structural stability : for example, the difference in electronegativity of the two elemental constituents &#8710;X, the difference in atomic size &#8710;R, or the average number of valence electrons per atom e/a. During the early 1980s Pierre Villars had constructed such three-dimensional maps (&#8710;X, &#8710;R, e/a) in an effort to separate the binary compounds into distinct structural domains within the map. Unfortunately, the structural separation was not good because these maps relied solely on the classical coordinates of electronegativity, size and number, neglecting completely the quantum mechanical character of the valence orbitals (which describe the bonding hybrids or &#8216;hooks' that stick out from the atoms to form directed bonds). I realized that if we were to present the structural data in a user friendly fashion for the alloy developers, then we could not use &lt;i&gt;physical&lt;/i&gt; coordinates (that required at least four dimensions !) but instead must use a single &lt;i&gt;phenomenological&lt;/i&gt; coordinate. This I obtained by running a string through the periodic table, as shown in Picture 1.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Picture 1.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;span class='spip_document_240 spip_documents spip_documents_center'&gt;
&lt;img src='https://www.sho.espci.fr/sites/www.sho.espci.fr/IMG/jpg/stringing_periodic_table-img1-Pettifor.jpg?1320419292' width='500' height='293' alt=&#034;&#034; /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Pulling this string apart orders all the elements with respect to each other, so that two dimensional maps can be plotted for any given stiochiometry (see Picture 2). These maps suggested to the alloy developers how best to alloy their binary titanium aluminides to drive the pseudobinary into cubic domains of stability. They found that these cubic phases were indeed less brittle than the original tetragonal or hexagonal phases, but alas they were still not ductile enough to fly in a jet engine ! This required the expertise of traditional metallurgists who subsequently found clever processing routes to control the microstructure of the alloy. Nevertheless, these two-dimensional structure maps are very powerful pedagogically. The string is the simplest representation that keeps the chemistry by grouping like elements in sequential order. I would call this a model.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Picture 2.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;span class='spip_document_241 spip_documents spip_documents_center'&gt;
&lt;img src='https://www.sho.espci.fr/sites/www.sho.espci.fr/IMG/jpg/structure_map-img2-Pettifor.jpg?1320419587' width='500' height='644' alt=&#034;&#034; /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;BBV : &lt;i&gt;So would you call the Mendeleev periodic table a model as well ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;DP : I don't have such deep philosophical thoughts. I would call it a table and I call that a string. So maybe it is not a model. But the periodic table is a representation of reality that topologically orders all hundred elements within a matrix that rationalizes their chemical properties. Similarly, this string helps order empirical data on compounds, thereby allowing the search for new alloy phases with improved mechanical properties.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;BBV : &lt;i&gt;Is it the kind of models that you are doing at the Materials Modeling Laboratory ? What is the role of modeling now in Materials Science ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;DP : When I came here ten years ago the idea was to set up a Materials Modeling Laboratory that was unique at that time. We wanted to go the whole way from quantum mechanics up to the engineering level within one laboratory. (Picture 3 : hierarchy of models). I have colleagues who do the modeling of processes, for instance, the solidification of metals, or the spray forming of metals. Obviously they use continuum modeling rather then quantum mechanics. The goal was to get this community to talk together. The chemists doing drug design had always had good contacts with fundamental &lt;i&gt;ab initio&lt;/i&gt; theorists. But the drug design did not really get beyond the atoms, they did not have to worry about the microstructure. My community had a quantitative basis from which to start. So we could solve the density functional equations on huge computers and get binding energies, heats of formations, and even phase diagrams from first principles. Going from the electronic world through to the world of atoms, then up through the microstructural domain to the continuum world, the idea was to bridge the gaps between these different modeling hierarchies. Ten years ago people started talking to each other but there was not much interaction, except in the polymer world where the chemists had made the most advance in so-called multi-scale materials modeling. But it was also political because at each length-scale there was a different community, loosely corresponding to a different discipline. During my inaugural lecture in Oxford ten years ago, I plotted the vertical scale as drawn in Picture 3 to show that our lab had to be interdisciplinary.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Picture 3.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;span class='spip_document_242 spip_documents spip_documents_center'&gt;
&lt;img src='https://www.sho.espci.fr/sites/www.sho.espci.fr/IMG/jpg/Materials_model_lab_PETTIFOR-img3.jpg?1320419667' width='500' height='703' alt=&#034;&#034; /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;BBV : &lt;i&gt;Practically how did you interact ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;DP : I introduced the Friday lunchtime seminars. The MML (Materials Modeling Laboratory) seminars are different from the department colloquia. These weekly seminars were a learning experience for all of us. My colleagues in the department saw them as highly successful in integrating the modeling and experimental work within the department.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;BBV : &lt;i&gt;So is it by this way that your own research belongs to materials science ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;DP : Yes, I believe very strongly in the goal of multiscale materials modeling where the ultimate driver is to understand and control the processing and properties of materials.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;BBV : &lt;i&gt;What kind of models did you work out in this department ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;DP : With multiscale modeling we got funding several years ago from DARPA on the chemical vapor deposition of diamond films. That brought together a team involving a chemical engineer for modeling the flow of gases through the reactor, a materials scientist for modeling the growth of the film, and us in Oxford doing the quantum mechanical atomistic studies on the dominant growth mechanisms at the diamond surface. In America that particular program was called virtual integrated prototyping, VIP. That was a very exciting dynamic program. It was unusual for non US scientists to get funding from DARPA. The same project to model the CVD growth of films was considered as too ambitious in this country by the Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council (EPSRC). We have just put a new application into the DARPA spintronics program that is centered on deriving interatomic bond-order potentials to bridge the gap between the electronic and atomistic modeling hierarchies.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;BBV : &lt;i&gt;It seems that the Americans have been extremely important to you.&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;DP : Yes, DARPA has been important in supporting this work on bridging these gaps. Also it was the Americans who funded the work on the structure maps. The US Department of Energy gave me money that allowed me to take a sabbatical. When this lab was set up ten years ago we got funding from Hewlett Packard Laboratories in Palo Alto for two modeling postdocs and one experimental postdoc. They are currently funding a postdoc to model the writing with an electron beam in phase change materials for atomic resolution storage.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;BBV : &lt;i&gt;How do you see nanotechnology ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;DP : I am obviously in favor of it. I am involved with a colleague in this department, Andrew Briggs, on quantum computing in collaboration with people in Cambridge and from the Clarendon Laboratory on the other side of this road. He got a big grant last year. He is looking at different ways of building solid state quantum computers. One of the ways is based on putting nitrogen inside a fullerene inside a nanotube of carbon. Nitrogen has a spin which is a good quantum bit. There was an excellent discussion meeting about quantum information processing a month ago at the Royal Society. The science coming out is absolutely amazing. Even if we don't have a quantum computer in twenty years time, it is pioneering science. The concepts are totally different from classical computing. That is only one part of nanotechnology but it is a very exciting area.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;BBV : &lt;i&gt;Do you think that nanotechnology can bring more coherence into the cluster of research fields covered by materials science ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;DP : Tony Evans, probably the most cited materials scientist in the world, currently at Santa Barbara, was the chair of the Panel of Assessment of materials science departments in this country. He started his presentation stating that &#034;Materials science is an enabling science&#034;. If it is a science that enables engineers to make things, it is not about to gain coherence as it spreads and dilutes itself into more and more fields such as biomaterials and nanotechnology. May be it will disappear from most universities as a unique undergraduate discipline in the future, as the core disciplines of physics, chemistry, biology and engineering set up interdisciplinary courses and modules. For the present, however, here in Oxford our multidisciplinary materials science course is becoming increasingly popular with school applicants, who enjoy the mix of physics, chemistry and engineering that we offer.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;i&gt;Fin de l'enregistrement&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
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&lt;p&gt;&#171; Entretien avec David G. Pettifor &#187;, par Bernadette Bensaude-Vincent, 13 d&#233;cembre 2002 &lt;i&gt;Sciences : histoire orale&lt;/i&gt;, &lt;a href='https://www.sho.espci.fr/spip.php?article127' class=&#034;spip_in&#034;&gt;https://sho.spip.espci.fr/spip.php?article127&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;
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&lt;p&gt;Entretien avec David G. Pettifor, par Bernadette Bensaude-Vincent, 13 d&#233;cembre 2002&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Lieu : Materials Modeling Laboratory, Department of Materials, University of Oxford, Parks Road, Oxford OX1 3PH, UK&lt;/p&gt;
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&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href='https://www.sho.espci.fr/spip.php?article127' class=&#034;spip_in&#034;&gt;Transcription&lt;/a&gt; : &lt;a href='https://www.sho.espci.fr/spip.php?article7' class=&#034;spip_in&#034;&gt;Bernadette Bensaude-Vincent&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Edition en ligne : &lt;a href='https://www.sho.espci.fr/spip.php?article79' class=&#034;spip_in&#034;&gt;Sophie Jourdin&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
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<item xml:lang="fr">
		<title>HIRSCH Peter, 2002-12-12</title>
		<link>https://www.sho.espci.fr/spip.php?article126</link>
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		<dc:date>2011-11-04T14:03:56Z</dc:date>
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		<dc:language>fr</dc:language>
		<dc:creator>Sophie Jourdin</dc:creator>


		<dc:subject>solid state ionics</dc:subject>
		<dc:subject>Goodenough, John B.</dc:subject>
		<dc:subject>chimie physique</dc:subject>
		<dc:subject>microscope &#233;lectronique &#224; transmission (TEM)</dc:subject>
		<dc:subject>diffraction des rayons X (XRD)</dc:subject>
		<dc:subject>polym&#232;res</dc:subject>
		<dc:subject>Friedel, Jacques </dc:subject>

		<description>
&lt;p&gt;Professor Sir Peter Hirsch. &lt;br class='autobr' /&gt;
BERNADETTE BENSAUDE-VINCENT (BBV) : Could you tell me about how metallurgy developed in Oxford and how it grew into Materials Science ? &lt;br class='autobr' /&gt;
PETER HIRSCH (PH) : Let me first say a few words about the way I see the early developments of Materials Science in the UK. There were various trends that came together after the War. First of all there was Professor Nevill Mott in Bristol, developing Solid State Physics. His interests included inter alia defects and how they (&#8230;)&lt;/p&gt;


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 <content:encoded>&lt;div class='rss_chapo'&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Professor Sir Peter Hirsch&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;
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&lt;img src='https://www.sho.espci.fr/sites/www.sho.espci.fr/local/cache-vignettes/L301xH331/Hirsch-img1-9362b.jpg?1737540906' width='301' height='331' alt=&#034;&#034; /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;BERNADETTE BENSAUDE-VINCENT (BBV) : &lt;i&gt;Could you tell me about how metallurgy developed in Oxford and how it grew into Materials Science ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;PETER HIRSCH (PH) : Let me first say a few words about the way I see the early developments of Materials Science in the UK. There were various trends that came together after the War. First of all there was Professor Nevill Mott in Bristol, developing Solid State Physics. His interests included inter alia defects and how they influence properties of materials. He had important activities on properties related to point defects and on the photographic effect. In the course of these studies they also developed techniques for visualizing dislocations. The group included Charles Frank, a physical chemist by training who was a material scientist par excellence. He developed a theory of crystal growth. Then there was Nabarro who worked on dislocations. So in Bristol they worked on defects, dislocations, crystal growth, the photographic effect, and also optical properties of crystals.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;BBV : &lt;i&gt;Where were they based ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;PH : In the Physics department at Bristol University. It was Solid State Physics. The electron theory of metals was developed there too. And Jacques Friedel was there for some time. In my opinion Solid State Physics opened the way to Materials Science. In parallel with this there was the group in the Metallurgy Department in Birmingham, lead by Alan Cottrell. He is much more of a materials scientist than I am. He was subsequently instrumental in developing Materials Science in Cambridge. His activity in Birmingham was very important because his group attempted to explain mechanical properties in terms of disclocation theory. And the third trend was what happened here in Oxford through Hume-Rothery's classic work on electron phases of alloys. He stimulated work on electron theory of metals and alloys in Physics Departments elsewhere. He was trained as a chemist.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;BBV : &lt;i&gt;So it came out of these three trends ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;PH : These are the main three. I may be unfair to other groups but these were the most influential groups.&lt;br class='autobr' /&gt;
There was some Metal Physics going on in the Cavendish Laboratory after the war. Bragg, who was Head of Department was of course an X-Ray crystallographer. In order to understand the intensities of diffraction spots on an X-Ray diffraction photograph, it had to be assumed that the crystals were not perfect, i.e. that crystals consisted of mosaic blocks. This was based on a theory by Darwin (1914) of the intensities of diffracted X Rays. Bragg published a note in the 1940s on the relationship between strength and particle size (mosaic blocks) in crystals. There were two groups in the Cavendish in the Metal Physics field when I came in 1946. One was Bragg's little group which developed the bubble-model, typical of Bragg's simple but brilliant ideas. Another group was Orowan's Metal Physics group which studied plasticity, fracture, creep, those sorts of topics.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;BBV : &lt;i&gt;It is in the Cavendish Laboratory that you started your career, isn't ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;PH : It was 1946 when I joined and there were several activities. My own work started from Bragg's interest in work hardening (when you deform a metal it becomes stronger). I actually went into the Crystallography Department of the Cavendish to work on a PhD problem that Bragg gave me. It was conceptually very simple. If you take a metal and work it, does it break up into smaller blocks ? Bragg always had very simple and brilliant ideas. If the crystal breaks up into smaller blocks (subgrains) the diffraction pattern consists of individual spots from each little subgrain. If you make the beam small enough you illuminate such a small number that you will get a few spots on the diffraction ring, whereas, with too large a beam diameter you get a continuous ring due to overlapping spots. You can count the spots (on discontinuous rings) and deduce the size of the particles. That was the project. It did actually work for heavily cold worked aluminium. We derived a particle size of 2 microns. By the time we managed to do all this by X ray diffraction, Bragg had lost interest in it. He did not actually supervise me. Bragg was interested in proteins at that point. My formal supervisor was W.H. Taylor who was head of the Crystallography Department. His interest was the structure of minerals.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;BBV : &lt;i&gt;When you worked in Cambridge did you consider yourself as a crystallographer ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;PH : I was a physicist working in a department of crystallography. In those days most conventional crystallographers determined crystal structures. I was one of the relatively few people not doing that. &lt;br class='autobr' /&gt;
By the time we found that cold worked aluminium breaks into subgrains, Heidenreich at the Bell Laboratories published the first pictures of metals by Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM). He observed directly the little subgrains in heavily beaten aluminium foil. That depressed us very much because we needed exposures of many hours for our x-ray diffraction photographs, while he had a ten second exposure with his electron microscope. So we went into this field of TEM and finally we saw individual dislocations. This had a big impact because there were many metallurgists who did not believe in dislocations, who considered them as figments of the imagination of solid state physicists working out theories in tremendous detail without much supporting experimental evidence. With our technique you could see dislocations directly and see them move. And we made movies. I remember showing a movie at MIT to Bert Warren who was a well-known X Ray crystallographer. His comment was symptomatic of many metallurgists. Seing is believing. We converted people.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;BBV : &lt;i&gt;In terms of institutions could you describe the shift from Metallurgy to Materials departments ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;PH : There were many Metallurgy departments in this country : Sheffield, Birmingham, Imperial College, to mention a few. The activities of the groups that I mentioned gave an impetus. But an important impetus came from the United States. Bill Baker and Herbert Holloman in particular had this vision of multidisciplinary activities leading to the development of better materials, whiskers, ceramics etc.. An enormous amount of money was spent at General Electric, and Bell Telephone and the Ford Motor Company. When Alan Cottrell became Professor in Cambridge that was the real beginning of an institutional effort to develop Materials Science in this country. In my opinion that was the defining moment. Alan Cottrell left Birmingham in 1955 and went to work at the Atomic Energy Authority at Harwell where he worked on uranium and materials for nuclear reactors. Then he became Goldsmith Professor of Metallurgy in Cambridge in 1958. He started projects on ceramics and composite materials. Tony Kelly joined him to work in these areas. Alan Cottrell &#8216;s interest in composite materials probably stemmed partly from activities in the US but mainly from his own views on strong materials. He also supported work on superconductors. His initiative to work on different types of materials was probably the beginning of the shift from metallurgy to materials science in Universities in this country.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;BBV : &lt;i&gt;Could you tell something about the implementation of Materials Science here in Oxford ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;PH : The department of Metallurgy and an Honour School in Metallurgy were started by the University in 1957. Jack Christian wrote a paper on the early history (Materials World, April1997) when the department celebrated its 40th anniversary. You see from this that Hume-Rothery started as a chemist and worked in the Inorganic Chemistry Department. But he was interested in metallic phases. The idea of a separate department arose gradually. Jack Christian was appointed as demonstrator in 1951 and initially lectured on metallurgical topics to chemists. Metallography was a supplementary subject in the Chemistry Honour School. Then the Pressed Steel Company at Oxford established a readership in metallurgy named after George Kelley. Hume-Rothery became the first George Kelley reader in 1954. Jack Christian was appointed lecturer in 1955, then John Martin came from Cambridge and joined in 1957, followed by Angus Hellawell. There was a move to increase the Engineering School and to develop a Department of Metallurgy. Francis Simon who was professor of physics here was keen to establish something on the lines of the Laboratory for the Study of Metals in Chicago, which was famous in those days. Chicago was a research institute, not a teaching department, just a research institute for postgraduates. This is what Simon had in mind for Oxford. However, the industrial advisors expressed the view that we needed to educate metallurgists to go into industry. British industry wanted a teaching department. Monty Finniston, who was at the time the head of the metallurgy division at AERE Harwell and later became chairman of British Steel, made approaches to the Wolfson Foundation for financial support. The result was the establishement of the Isaac Wolfson Chair in Metallurgy which Hume-Rothery held until his retirement in 1966.&lt;br class='autobr' /&gt;
At the same time the condition that the Wolfson foundation made for giving the money for the Chair was that the University Grants Committee, an organization distributing the money from the Department of Education to the Universities, should provide the funds for the building. Funds were provided by the University Grants Committee and the building was opened in 1959. Initially the Honour School was a Joint Honour School in Chemistry and Metallurgy, which subsequently became Metallurgy. There is an interesting quote in Jack Christian's paper which indicates the University's unease with technology at that time. The Honour School should teach &#171; no more technology than is involved in the degree courses of chemistry and physics &#187; and it stated that &#171; the man who has studied pure science at a university can take up technology on entering industry much more easily than one who has studied technology can later take up the pure science which may be required for his work &#187;. It was still quite difficult to really expand engineering and to get a proper engineering metallurgy course at that time. The research that was going on here was on alloy phases (Hume-Rothery's research) ; John Martin worked on mechanical properties of alloys ; Angus Hellawell worked on solidification studies ; Jack Christian worked on phase transformations - the martensitic transformations - of metals and alloys, and also on plastic deformation of body centred cubic metals. So that was the development of metallurgy in Oxford before 1966. Clearly this department was a metallurgy department rather than a materials department. But Hume-Rothery's work was influential in encouraging solid state physicists to become interested in metals. He stimulated the understanding of the structures of metals and alloys on the basis of the fundamental electron theory of metals. He empirically developed some structure rules. He hoped that electron theory of metals would enable the prediction of the structures of metals and alloys and appointed a theoretical chemist, Simon Altmann, to work in this area.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;BBV : &lt;i&gt;And then you came in this Metallurgy department. Why did you move from Cambridge to Oxford ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;PH : I came in 1966. I was a physicist who had worked on electron microscopy of defects in materials. I had the opportunity to take a Cambridge chair or an Oxford chair. I decided to go to Oxford for two reasons. 1) I had been in Cambridge quite a long time (23 years) and a change opens new vistas. 2) The challenge was much greater here and my own predilection was always for building things up. The Cambridge Metallurgy department was a large and successful department built up by Alan Cottrell. In Oxford there was really a nucleus of a department (a distinguished one) and in principle one could do a job to build it up.&lt;br class='autobr' /&gt;
I had already built up a large research group in the Cavendish in Cambridge. When Bragg switched his interests to proteins (Perutz, Kendrew et al) Orowan left and went to MIT. I don't know the details but my impression is that Bragg did not work hard enough to get Orowan a senior permanent job. So the Metal Physics group in Cambridge folded up. Bragg's own little group folded up too. We made a significant effort to set up a new Metal Physics group at the Cavendish. The vision behind this was : We now had a technique to enable us to actually see with the TEM what is going on inside metals and one could see the defect distribution after deformation or irradiation of the material. One could then determine in principle what the properties of the materials were. That was the Holy Grail. There were three steps : 1) to try to understand the properties of the defects and how they interacted ; 2) to try understand how they control the macroscopic properties ; 3) if one understood the basic relation between defects and properties then one could eventually go further and predict what processing should be done to optimise properties. That was the vision but while we were successful in the first step, there was only limited success in the second step, and we never got as far as the third step.&lt;br class='autobr' /&gt;
When I came to Oxford, my aim was to get this technique of TEM - to see what goes on in the materials - transferred to a metallurgy/materials department. I wanted to get it closer to applications to &#171; real &#187; materials. Whereas physicists work on models, - on pure copper for instance, a metallurgy department should be looking at materials of interest technologically, such as alloys that are much closer to practical needs. My aim was to apply TEM to technologically interesting materials, real materials rather than the model materials that we looked at in Cambridge. &lt;br class='autobr' /&gt;
When I got here I did attempt to build up Materials Science. Right from the beginning my aim was to shift from metallurgy to materials science which should cover all kinds of materials and applications.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;BBV : &lt;i&gt;Where did this project come from ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;PH : There was no model course. We had to build this up incrementally. When I first came the University provided three new permanent posts, very generously. One was for Professor Whelan, to establish the electron microscopy group. One went to John Hunt, a solidification expert who had worked at Harwell and Bell Laboratories ; and another one was for Geoffrey Groves who worked on ceramics. Gradually we built up a Materials Department by securing more appointments. You have to realize that when I came in 1966 the number of staff was very small (4 faculty plus the Professor).The course developed gradually and changed from metallurgy to materials science. In the early years a considerable part of the teaching was carried out by research assistants or fellows supported on research grants or fellowships. The research activities were built up first, and the research groups then helped in the teaching of the Honour School.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;BBV : &lt;i&gt;When did you officially change the name of the department ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;PH : That was much later, 1990. The name of the Honour School was changed to Metallurgy and Science of Materials in1969 (The University would not accept &#034;Materials Science&#034; because Materials was not an adjective !).&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;span class='spip_document_238 spip_documents spip_documents_right' style='float:right;'&gt;
&lt;img src='https://www.sho.espci.fr/sites/www.sho.espci.fr/local/cache-vignettes/L278xH311/Hirsch-img2-8e778.jpg?1737540906' width='278' height='311' alt=&#034;&#034; /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;BBV : &lt;i&gt;Did you appoint chemists as well ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;PH : We didn't appoint chemists to teaching posts. We appointed metallurgists and physicists. But we did appoint a chemist to a research post in the department, in high resolution electron microscopy. When I retired in 1992 the department consisted mainly of metallurgists or materials scientists and physicists or ex-physicists. We appointed inter alia people who had expertise in semiconductors, superconductors, magnetic materials, materials processing, corrosion. Gradually we extended the scope of the courses in the department. The one sticking point was polymers. For a very long time we could not get a good polymer scientist. It has changed now. We now have two polymer scientists.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;BBV : &lt;i&gt;Did you have contacts with John Goodenough who came to the chemistry department in 1973 ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;PH : We did have contacts but we probably did not make the best of the opportunity. In this department we were more interested in the effect of microstructure on materials, metals, ceramics, semiconductors, superconductors, magnetic materials etc., rather than e.g. in the intrinsic magnetic properties of perovskites and other materials. Our interests were not sufficiently close. We became a Materials Department in that we were concerned with the effects of microstructure on properties of a wide range of materials of technological interest and with the effects of defects on devices. The work on superconductors was initially on low temperature superconductors, but later on high temperature superconductors, and the more recent studies focused on processing. There was some interaction with the Inorganic Chemistry Laboratory on electron microscopy of catalysts and superconductors.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;BBV : &lt;i&gt;Did you keep a close link between courses and research in the department ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;PH : Yes. We started as a metallurgy department. We built up a number of research groups, and the expertise in some of these, e.g. semiconductor and magnetic materials, enabled us to teach courses on these topics and broaden the curriculum to Materials Science. At some point we had a group working on cements, and this too led to a course in the Honour School. And there were always undergraduate and postgraduate courses on materials characterisation, where we had particular strengths. In the 1980s, I became more interested in the output end, in getting closer to the engineers.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;BBV : &lt;i&gt;Did you train students in engineering ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;PH : The engineers had their own faculty to teach materials to Engineers. But we did some teaching for them, and over some years they taught polymers for us. In the mid 1980s we started a joint course with the Engineers on Electronic and Structural Materials Engineering, changed to Engineering and Materials in 1992. This led to closer collaboration with the Engineers in teaching and research.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;BBV : &lt;i&gt;Did you also have contacts with the nuclear physics department in Oxford ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;PH : The only contact we had with the Nuclear Physics Laboratory in Oxford was on their proton microprobe, a materials characterisation tool, and fairly recently this activity was transferred to our department.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;We had a lot of contacts with Harwell. From 1973 onwards I got very much involved with the study of the integrity of pressurized water reactors through the Marshall Committee. From 1982 to 1984 I became part-time chairman of the Atomic Energy Authority. This period had a strong influence on me. I felt the need to produce materials engineers, not only materials scientists. I learned during my period with the Atomic Energy Authority that the education of engineers in materials tended to be relatively poor. And this could result in inappropriate component design or manufacture. These problems sometimes led to costly mistakes. In order to develop a joint activity between engineers and metallurgists we got some support from the engineering department. To cut a long and difficult story short, we took an opportunity which presented itself around that time in the form of additional funding for engineering courses from the Government to start a course on Electronic and Structural Materials Engineering.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;BBV : &lt;i&gt;Was it in the 1980s ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;PH : Yes.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;BBV : &lt;i&gt;Did you then feel the need to add &#171; engineering &#187; in the name of the department on the lines of the departments in US universities that are called Materials Science and Engineering with an emphasis on the E of Engineering ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;PH : What happened here is that we developed a multiplicity of courses to provide more options for the undergraduates to increase our intake. The courses were Metallurgy and the Science of Materials, then Metallurgy, Economics and Management (1979), and finally Engineering and Materials. There is close collaboration between us and engineering through the teaching and contacts in research. This depends on individual contacts of course. In the 1980s we set up with the Engineers the Oxford Centre for Advanced Materials and Composites (OCAMAC) to foster collaborative research and contacts with industry. There is now also strong collaboration with people in chemistry and physics on a number of research programmes. We have become much more interdisciplinary, if you like. We have always considered ourselves as a bridge between the Science and Engineering Departments, with contacts with both. The fact that Physical Science and Engineering are all part of the same faculty in Oxford is advantageous to us. We did consider changing the name of the Department to Materials Science and Engineering - but that was unacceptable to the Engineers who considered Materials Engineering to be their responsibility. So we decided to change the name in 1990 to &#034;Department of Materials&#034;.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;BBV : &lt;i&gt;It seems that your story is quite different from that of the US materials departments.&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;PH : I think that it is different ; you are quite right. Here the initiative to have Materials Departments came from academics, whereas in the US the development was led by Industry, and industrialists promoted Materials Science in Universities. (This does not mean that no materials science was going on in industry in the UK - e.g. the carbon fiber work at Farnborough.) I think it started in Cambridge first. We came along in the late 1960s. By that time there were materials science activities going on in many departments, at Imperial College and Birmingham, for instance. We could not claim to have inspired Materials science in the UK. We came along and did our own brand. There were many departments, but they were on a small scale. Concerning the definition of Materials Science I am with Merton Flemings. Structure, properties, processing, performance/application. I think it is the engineering applications that are fundamental. The philosophy of the department here was to get theoretical and practical people together. People able to develop models with people who really know what applications are important. And industrial links were fostered. It is still the philosophy today, even more so. In the last few years after my retirement the department has gone from strength to strength in that direction. There is now another site in Begbroke, five miles away from Oxford centre. It provides opportunities for collaborative research between the Department and Industry.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;BBV : &lt;i&gt;Where did the money come from ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;PH : The funding for work in the department came partly from the University, the Research Council and Industry. Some from charitable foundations, e.g. for building expansions. We had a large budget from the Research Council. That is another important aspect, somewhat similar to the US picture.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;It is difficult to attract undergraduates to read Materials Science and Metallurgy. Enormous efforts have been spent on attracting more undergraduates, most of them not very successful. (But a recent appointment of a Schools Liaison Officer seems to be effective.) Materials Science is not a school subject, although elements are introduced into some of the school examination papers e.g. the physics curriculum. The number of courses and options that we offer in Oxford has helped a bit but it remains a problem. Some small departments in the UK were able to survive because they had a large research activity (supported on non-University funds) compared to the undergraduate activities. But in the UK as a whole some Materials Departments have closed or have been amalgamated with Engineering Departments. The change of name of department from Metallurgy to Materials does not only reflect the change in content of the courses. It is also pragmatic because metallurgy has an old-fashion ring about it and materials science is a much broader subject likely to attract more students. The image of materials for computers, aeroplanes and cars is more exciting than that of dirty blast furnaces in the steel industry.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;BBV : &lt;i&gt;What would you say about multidisciplinarity in the development of this department ? More specifically could you compare the situation here in Oxford with this diagram published by the National Academy of Science in 1969 with a hard core in mathematics physics and chemistry and applications around ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;PH : I would agree with this : mathematics, physics and chemistry are basic inputs in Materials Science with applications in ceramics, polymers, and so on. But in these days I would include materials for medical applications. There is somebody in this department working on biomedical materials for implants. There is also a large group in Cambridge. There is a big scope for materials in medicine, particularly for prostheses.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;BBV : &lt;i&gt;Finally would you consider yourself today more as a physicist or as a material scientist ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;PH : I think I am physicist who &#171; saw the light &#187;. True physicists would no longer consider me as a physicist. I consider myself as a materials scientist because my interest is in the effect of microstructure on the properties of materials. I am interested in quite complex materials, with potential applications e.g. high temperature intermetallics, and in modelling their complex mechanical properties. I ended up as a materials scientist. But there are materials scientists who would consider me to be a rather theoretical materials scientist. In the later years of my conversion I supported and promoted materials processing in the department although it took me rather a long time to get to this view, to appreciate the importance of this field, and to realise the need and potential for modelling.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;BBV : &lt;i&gt;What is your concept of materials science ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;PH : I am close to Merton Flemings's concept. To me materials science is an enabling science. We study material composition, structure, properties and processing for applications in engineering. There is now a strong group on processing here. Not only casting but various kinds of processing like spray forming, coating, making magnetic and superconductor devices etc. There are also two lecturers working on polymers now.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;BBV : &lt;i&gt;Does polymer synthesis now belong to Materials Science ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;PH : Polymer processing and modelling properties belong to materials science, but synthesis of new kinds of polymers - I doubt if this is a proper activity for a materials department, although it would be quite appropriate as a joint research activity with Chemistry. That would be my view for what it is worth. But composition, structure, properties, performance, Merton Fleming's picture, defines Materials Science.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;BBV : &lt;i&gt;What about the recent addition of end-users to this picture ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;PH : Yes end-users are important but I would consider that this links in with performance. The interaction with industry is important. Quite apart from the problem of funding it is vital for materials science, as an enabling science.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;i&gt;Fin de l'enregistrement&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
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&lt;p&gt;&#171; Entretien avec Peter Hirsch &#187;, par Bernadette Bensaude-Vincent, 12 d&#233;cembre 2002 &lt;i&gt;Sciences : histoire orale&lt;/i&gt;, &lt;a href='https://www.sho.espci.fr/spip.php?article126' class=&#034;spip_in&#034;&gt;https://sho.spip.espci.fr/spip.php?article126&lt;/a&gt;.
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&lt;p&gt;Entretien avec Peter Hirsch, par Bernadette Bensaude-Vincent, 12 d&#233;cembre 2002&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Lieu : Materials Department, Oxford University&lt;/p&gt;
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&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href='https://www.sho.espci.fr/spip.php?article126' class=&#034;spip_in&#034;&gt;Transcription&lt;/a&gt; : &lt;a href='https://www.sho.espci.fr/spip.php?article7' class=&#034;spip_in&#034;&gt;Bernadette Bensaude-Vincent&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Edition en ligne : &lt;a href='https://www.sho.espci.fr/spip.php?article79' class=&#034;spip_in&#034;&gt;Sophie Jourdin&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
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<item xml:lang="fr">
		<title>HAGENMULLER Paul, 2001-06-12</title>
		<link>https://www.sho.espci.fr/spip.php?article124</link>
		<guid isPermaLink="true">https://www.sho.espci.fr/spip.php?article124</guid>
		<dc:date>2011-11-03T15:23:16Z</dc:date>
		<dc:format>text/html</dc:format>
		<dc:language>fr</dc:language>
		<dc:creator>Sophie Jourdin</dc:creator>


		<dc:subject>&#233;lectrochimie</dc:subject>
		<dc:subject>chimie du solide</dc:subject>
		<dc:subject>compos&#233;s d'insertion</dc:subject>
		<dc:subject>Whittingham, Stanley</dc:subject>
		<dc:subject>Rouxel, Jean</dc:subject>
		<dc:subject>non-stoechiom&#233;trie</dc:subject>
		<dc:subject>solid state ionics</dc:subject>
		<dc:subject>Pouchard, Michel</dc:subject>
		<dc:subject>Hagenmuller, Paul</dc:subject>
		<dc:subject>Goodenough, John B.</dc:subject>
		<dc:subject>oxydes m&#233;talliques</dc:subject>
		<dc:subject>N&#233;el, Louis</dc:subject>
		<dc:subject>Bertaut, F&#233;lix</dc:subject>
		<dc:subject>Chaudron, Georges</dc:subject>
		<dc:subject>B&#233;nard, Jacques</dc:subject>
		<dc:subject>Collongues, Robert</dc:subject>
		<dc:subject>alumine b&#234;ta</dc:subject>
		<dc:subject>chimie physique</dc:subject>
		<dc:subject>batteries lithium-ion</dc:subject>
		<dc:subject>microscope &#233;lectronique &#224; transmission (TEM)</dc:subject>
		<dc:subject>diffraction des rayons X (XRD)</dc:subject>
		<dc:subject>Friedel, Jacques </dc:subject>
		<dc:subject>Centre national de la recherche scientifique (CNRS)</dc:subject>
		<dc:subject>Rh&#244;ne-Poulenc</dc:subject>
		<dc:subject>Saint-Gobain recherche</dc:subject>

		<description>
&lt;p&gt;Paul Hagenmuller, born in Alsace in 1921, developed solid-state chemistry in France. He first initiated a research program at the University of Rennes (1956-60). In 1960 he set up a dynamic laboratory in Bordeaux. In 1964, Hagenmuller organized an international conference dedicated to the relations between structure and physical properties in oxides of the transition elements. The meeting gathered together chemists, crystallographers and solid-state physicists and prompted the establishment (&#8230;)&lt;/p&gt;


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&lt;a href="https://www.sho.espci.fr/spip.php?mot33" rel="tag"&gt;compos&#233;s d'insertion&lt;/a&gt;, 
&lt;a href="https://www.sho.espci.fr/spip.php?mot36" rel="tag"&gt;Whittingham, Stanley&lt;/a&gt;, 
&lt;a href="https://www.sho.espci.fr/spip.php?mot38" rel="tag"&gt;Rouxel, Jean&lt;/a&gt;, 
&lt;a href="https://www.sho.espci.fr/spip.php?mot42" rel="tag"&gt;non-stoechiom&#233;trie&lt;/a&gt;, 
&lt;a href="https://www.sho.espci.fr/spip.php?mot44" rel="tag"&gt;solid state ionics&lt;/a&gt;, 
&lt;a href="https://www.sho.espci.fr/spip.php?mot46" rel="tag"&gt;Pouchard, Michel&lt;/a&gt;, 
&lt;a href="https://www.sho.espci.fr/spip.php?mot48" rel="tag"&gt;Hagenmuller, Paul&lt;/a&gt;, 
&lt;a href="https://www.sho.espci.fr/spip.php?mot50" rel="tag"&gt;Goodenough, John B.&lt;/a&gt;, 
&lt;a href="https://www.sho.espci.fr/spip.php?mot53" rel="tag"&gt;oxydes m&#233;talliques&lt;/a&gt;, 
&lt;a href="https://www.sho.espci.fr/spip.php?mot54" rel="tag"&gt;N&#233;el, Louis&lt;/a&gt;, 
&lt;a href="https://www.sho.espci.fr/spip.php?mot55" rel="tag"&gt;Bertaut, F&#233;lix&lt;/a&gt;, 
&lt;a href="https://www.sho.espci.fr/spip.php?mot57" rel="tag"&gt;Chaudron, Georges&lt;/a&gt;, 
&lt;a href="https://www.sho.espci.fr/spip.php?mot59" rel="tag"&gt;B&#233;nard, Jacques&lt;/a&gt;, 
&lt;a href="https://www.sho.espci.fr/spip.php?mot61" rel="tag"&gt;Collongues, Robert&lt;/a&gt;, 
&lt;a href="https://www.sho.espci.fr/spip.php?mot65" rel="tag"&gt;alumine b&#234;ta&lt;/a&gt;, 
&lt;a href="https://www.sho.espci.fr/spip.php?mot67" rel="tag"&gt;chimie physique&lt;/a&gt;, 
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&lt;a href="https://www.sho.espci.fr/spip.php?mot93" rel="tag"&gt;diffraction des rayons X (XRD)&lt;/a&gt;, 
&lt;a href="https://www.sho.espci.fr/spip.php?mot113" rel="tag"&gt;Friedel, Jacques &lt;/a&gt;, 
&lt;a href="https://www.sho.espci.fr/spip.php?mot127" rel="tag"&gt;Centre national de la recherche scientifique (CNRS)&lt;/a&gt;, 
&lt;a href="https://www.sho.espci.fr/spip.php?mot134" rel="tag"&gt;Rh&#244;ne-Poulenc&lt;/a&gt;, 
&lt;a href="https://www.sho.espci.fr/spip.php?mot136" rel="tag"&gt;Saint-Gobain recherche&lt;/a&gt;

		</description>


 <content:encoded>&lt;div class='rss_chapo'&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;csfoo htmla&#034;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span class='spip_document_227 spip_documents spip_documents_right' style='float:right;'&gt;
&lt;img src='https://www.sho.espci.fr/sites/www.sho.espci.fr/IMG/jpg/Hagenmuller_photo.jpg' width=&#034;329&#034; height=&#034;313&#034; alt=&#034;&#034; /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;csfoo htmlb&#034;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Paul Hagenmuller&lt;/strong&gt;, born in Alsace in 1921, developed solid-state chemistry in France. He first initiated a research program at the University of Rennes (1956-60). In 1960 he set up a dynamic laboratory in Bordeaux. In 1964, Hagenmuller organized an international conference dedicated to the relations between structure and physical properties in oxides of the transition elements. The meeting gathered together chemists, crystallographers and solid-state physicists and prompted the establishment of an international community of solid-state chemists. In Bordeaux, Hagenmuller became the head of a research school working, at the interface between physics and chemistry, on the relation between atomic/electronic structure and physical properties, with a strong emphasis on industrial applications.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;The Bordeaux research school has attracted scientists and students from all over the world (both developed and emerging countries) and many brilliant chemists of the next generation such as Jean Rouxel were trained in Bordeaux. Paul Hagenmuller retired in 1994. A jubilee celebration was organized at the Maison de la chimie in Paris in 1997. In 2001, his 80th birthday was celebrated in a special issue of the journal Solid State Chemistry.&lt;/p&gt;
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		&lt;div class='rss_texte'&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;HERVE ARRIBART (HA) : &lt;i&gt;Pouvez vous retracer votre formation, vos d&#233;buts dans la carri&#232;re ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;PAUL HAGENMULLER (PH) : Depuis que je m'int&#233;resse &#224; la science je me suis pr&#233;occup&#233; de la physique. Je me suis demand&#233; pourquoi les mat&#233;riaux avaient telle ou telle couleur, tel ou tel comportement &#233;lectrique, magn&#233;tique, optique ... J'ai donc &#233;t&#233; port&#233; vers la physique, plus tard vers la m&#233;canique par extension, d&#232;s que j'ai entrepris mes &#233;tudes de science. Ces &#233;tudes ont eu lieu en 1940 &#224; l'universit&#233; de Strasbourg, repli&#233;e &#224; Clermont Ferrand. Mon statut &#233;tait celui d'un r&#233;fugi&#233; politique puisque j'avais quitt&#233; l'Alsace pour &#233;chapper au syst&#232;me politique allemand et parce que je me refusais d'&#234;tre un jour mobilis&#233; dans l'arm&#233;e allemande. A Clermont, pour des raisons financi&#232;res j'ai fait le choix de la chimie, s&#233;duit par la diversit&#233; des m&#233;thodes de pr&#233;paration mais choqu&#233; parce que la chimie &#233;tait alors tr&#232;s descriptive et n'&#233;tait pas encore une science d&#233;ductive, de r&#233;flexion.&lt;br class='autobr' /&gt;
Sur place, je suis entr&#233; en r&#233;sistance, je faisais du sabotage. J'ai &#233;t&#233; arr&#234;t&#233; en 1943 et envoy&#233; en camp de concentration &#224; Buchenwald. L&#224; j'ai appris &#224; me taire. J'ai travaill&#233; sur les V2. J'ai appris le russe avec les prisonniers russes ; j'avais de bons contacts avec les communistes allemands. Puis j'ai &#233;t&#233; envoy&#233; &#224; Dora o&#249; c'&#233;tait plus dur.&lt;br class='autobr' /&gt;
Apr&#232;s la guerre, Andr&#233; Chr&#233;tien m'a propos&#233; un sujet de th&#232;se sur la formation de nitrites complexes en solution aqueuse, puis une recherche sur la r&#233;duction de divers oxydes par des hydrures d'alcalino-terreux. J'ai accept&#233; parce qu'il y avait un appareil math&#233;matique. Puis au lendemain de ma th&#232;se je me suis dit : il faut que je travaille sur des choses plus concr&#232;tes, les mat&#233;riaux. J'ai voulu revenir &#224; mes anciennes amours les mat&#233;riaux. Je suis parti au Vietnam dans le cadre d'un accord avec la direction de l'enseignement sup&#233;rieur et moi. Je partais pour deux ans 1954-56, au moment o&#249; la France se d&#233;sengageait et voulait garder des relations culturelles. Au retour il &#233;tait entendu que je pourrai choisir un poste de ma&#238;tre de conf&#233;rences parmi ceux qui &#233;taient disponibles en chimie. Ces deux ans de Vietnam ont &#233;t&#233; pour moi une p&#233;riode de d&#233;cantation, de r&#233;flexion. Et quand je suis revenu j'ai voulu, d'une part, me pr&#233;occuper de physique ce qui suppose la d&#233;termination des structures atomiques - pour comprendre les propri&#233;t&#233;s physiques il faut savoir quelles sont les positions des atomes - et, d'autre part, il faut une certaine habilet&#233; &#224; pr&#233;parer des mat&#233;riaux par des techniques nouvelles fort diff&#233;rentes.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;HA : &lt;i&gt;Quelles &#233;taient alors les relations entre physique des solides et chimie des mat&#233;riaux en France ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;PH : Aujourd'hui la physique s'est beaucoup rapproch&#233;e de la chimie parce que, de part et d'autre, on a compris que c'&#233;tait indispensable pour faire des mat&#233;riaux &#224; propri&#233;t&#233;s sp&#233;cifiques int&#233;ressantes sur le plan de la science fondamentale et int&#233;ressantes aussi sur le plan des applications. Au d&#233;but des ann&#233;es 60, on en &#233;tait &#224; se chercher. Moi, j'avais fait un choix tr&#232;s clair : faire une chimie orient&#233;e vers la physique, plus tard vers la m&#233;canique. Maintenant c'est devenu presque de routine, ne serait-ce que par ce que les chimistes pour bien conna&#238;tre leurs mat&#233;riaux sont oblig&#233;s d'utiliser des m&#233;thodes de caract&#233;risation physiques. La physique s'est impos&#233;e dans les perspectives de la recherche comme par les n&#233;cessit&#233;s quotidiennes : savoir o&#249; sont les atomes et les &#233;lectrons.&lt;br class='autobr' /&gt;
Donc au retour du Vietnam mon objectif &#233;tait d'associer la physique et la chimie. J'ai eu la chance que dans mon poste &#224; Rennes il y avait quantit&#233; d'excellents &#233;tudiants, mais en chimie personne ne voulait faire de la recherche sous pr&#233;texte qu'il n'y avait pas de moyens. J'ai d&#233;cid&#233; que j'allais lancer des th&#232;ses dans ce domaine &#224; l'interface de la physique et de la chimie. On a d'abord t&#226;tonn&#233;. On a travaill&#233; sur le bore, sur les hydrures. Parmi les &#233;tudes r&#233;alis&#233;es &#224; Rennes se trouvait la r&#233;duction d'oxydes par l'hydrure de lithium. On &#233;tait int&#233;ress&#233; par les hydrures de bore et d'aluminium qui comportaient des liaisons dites pont-hydrog&#232;ne originales. Ceci m'a donc amen&#233; &#224; r&#233;duire le V2O5 par l'hydrure de lithium et nous avons constat&#233; qu'il y avait des phases interm&#233;diaires qui devaient &#234;tre les futurs bronzes de vanadium et de lithium, qu'on a appel&#233;es plus tard b et g. La phase a &#233;tant la solution solide de lithium dans V2O5. Alors j'ai pens&#233; que ces mat&#233;riaux &#233;taient int&#233;ressants : s'il y a l&#224; un domaine d'existence, les propri&#233;t&#233;s physiques doivent varier &#224; l'int&#233;rieur de ce domaine et si, par chance, ce domaine est suffisamment grand on peut faire ce qui est plus difficile dans les solutions solides limit&#233;es, de type oxydes non st&#339;chiom&#233;triques. On s'est pr&#233;occup&#233; de mani&#232;re syst&#233;matique des bronzes de vanadium qu'on a pr&#233;par&#233;s par voie synth&#233;tique. Dans les ann&#233;es qui ont suivi - de 1960 &#224; 70, j'&#233;tais alors &#224; Bordeaux o&#249; un grand nombre de chercheurs de Rennes m'avaient suivi - on a pr&#233;par&#233; un grand nombre de phases de bronzes de vanadium par analogie avec les bronzes de tungst&#232;ne qui avaient d&#233;j&#224; &#233;t&#233; signal&#233;s. On a fait syst&#233;matiquement des &#233;tudes magn&#233;tiques et &#233;lectriques pour caract&#233;riser le mode de conductivit&#233;. Il est apparu que lorsqu'on ins&#233;rait le lithium dans le r&#233;seau, on remplissait les &#233;tats &#233;lectroniques du vanadium, qui forment la bande de conduction. Les &#233;lectrons devenaient donc de plus en plus d&#233;localis&#233;s au fur et &#224; mesure que leur nombre augmentait et on passait d'un &#233;tat semi-conducteur &#224; l'&#233;tat m&#233;tallique.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;BERNADETTE BENSAUDE-VINCENT (BBV) : &lt;i&gt;Quelles &#233;taient vos relations avec le groupe de Robert Collongues ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;PH : Collongues avait &#233;t&#233; &#233;l&#232;ve de Georges Chaudron, comme Andr&#233; Michel, Paul Lacombe, Jacques B&#233;nard. J'avais d'excellentes relations avec Collongues. Nos domaines se recouvraient partiellement sur la non-st&#339;chiom&#233;trie mais on avait des approches diff&#233;rentes. Lui enlevait des ions, nous on faisait de la chimie d'insertion. Collongues aimait bien se singulariser par rapport &#224; moi mais dans la pratique nous avions la m&#234;me politique sur des mat&#233;riaux diff&#233;rents. Il y avait chez lui le m&#234;me d&#233;sir de syst&#233;matique et de r&#233;flexion en profondeur. Collongues consid&#233;rait que la bonne exp&#233;rience &#233;tait importante mais qu'elle devait illustrer une r&#233;flexion de fond. Il pensait que la science &#233;tait avant tout la r&#233;flexion intellectuelle.&lt;br class='autobr' /&gt;
J'ai fait de la chimie sous pression &#224; la mani&#232;re d'un tailleur : choisir une structure cristallographique, &#233;crire la formule d'une composition chimique, puis la stabiliser dans un degr&#233; d'oxydation &#233;lev&#233;. Apr&#232;s avoir discut&#233; la structure puis la formule, on pr&#233;parait sous haute pression. C'&#233;tait du design pour la conductivit&#233; &#233;lectronique, les propri&#233;t&#233;s magn&#233;tiques, ou les propri&#233;t&#233;s magn&#233;to-optiques et plus tard &#233;galement pour la conductivit&#233; ionique.&lt;br class='autobr' /&gt;
Nous nous int&#233;ressions syst&#233;matiquement &#224; l'&#233;volution de toute propri&#233;t&#233; physique originale en fonction de la composition et de la structure. Un n&#339;ud important dans cette &#233;volution fut le colloque organis&#233; &#224; Bordeaux en 1964 sur les oxydes d'&#233;l&#233;ments de transition.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;HA : &lt;i&gt;Quelle fut la port&#233;e de ce colloque de 1964 ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;PH : Ce fut le moment o&#249; s'est constitu&#233;e une communaut&#233; internationale de chimie du solide. Le colloque a rassembl&#233; les chimistes qui nous &#233;taient familiers, des cristallographes (Erwin-Felix Bertaut, Charles Guillaud), des physiciens (Jacques Friedel). Parmi les &#233;trangers Mike Sienko, John Goodenough du Lincoln Laboratory au MIT qui est venu pour la premi&#232;re fois &#224; Bordeaux ; des Allemands : Wilhelm Klemm, Rudolf Hoppe, Harold Sch&#228;fer ; des Hollandais, des Belges, etc. Il est apparu qu'une conjugaison des m&#233;thodes de mesure physique, des m&#233;thodes de d&#233;termination structurale et une certaine flexibilit&#233; pour les changements de composition, pouvaient permettre d'optimiser un certain nombre de propri&#233;t&#233;s physiques. D'abord le magn&#233;tisme, ensuite il y a eu la ferro-&#233;lectricit&#233; - comment accro&#238;tre la distortion ferro-&#233;lectrique et par voie de cons&#233;quence la polarisation ; enfin, la conductivit&#233; ionique, d'abord dans des mat&#233;riaux isolants au point de vue &#233;lectronique et ensuite dans des mat&#233;riaux dits cathodiques utilisables dans des batteries parce que conducteurs mixtes.&lt;br class='autobr' /&gt;
Je dois dire que ce qui fut d&#233;terminant pour l'avenir de la chimie du solide ce fut la venue de John Goodenough &#224; ce congr&#232;s parce qu'il a popularis&#233; parmi nous l'id&#233;e de l'importance de la liaison chimique. On a compris qu'on pouvait renforcer ou att&#233;nuer la liaison chimique en modifiant la composition, en particulier en jouant sur la liaison antagoniste. Par exemple si on compare le zirconate de baryum avec le titanate de baryum, la liaison baryum-oxyg&#232;ne est renforc&#233;e dans le zirconate par rapport au titanate. Inversement si on remplace dans le titanate de baryum, le baryum par le strontium comme la liaison strontium -oxyg&#232;ne est plus forte que la liaison baryum-oxyg&#232;ne, la liaison titane-oxyg&#232;ne est affaiblie, ce qui peut amener une variation tr&#232;s forte de la polarisation en fonction de la temp&#233;rature, juste en dessous de la temp&#233;rature de Curie. Et on peut avoir ainsi des mat&#233;riaux aux propri&#233;t&#233;s int&#233;ressantes.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;HA : &lt;i&gt;Le rapprochement de la physique et de la chimie avec une orientation vers les applications constituerait-il donc l'identit&#233; de la chimie du solide &#224; cette &#233;poque ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;PH : Oui nous avions un besoin civique de justifier les cr&#233;dits que nous demandions par une application dans la vie &#233;conomique. De plus, le travail avec des industriels fait na&#238;tre des probl&#232;mes inattendus qui sont des challenges et qui sont nourrissants.&lt;br class='autobr' /&gt;
Une deuxi&#232;me date importante dans l'institutionnalisation de la chimie du solide est 1978. Sur mon initiative la Soci&#233;t&#233; fran&#231;aise de Chimie a cr&#233;&#233; en 1976 une division de chimie du solide, dont j'ai naturellement &#233;t&#233; le pr&#233;sident. J'ai organis&#233; la m&#234;me ann&#233;e un premier colloque national de chimie du solide &#224; Nantes. Sur ma proposition et sous ma pr&#233;sidence s'est tenu &#224; Strasbourg en 1978 le premier congr&#232;s europ&#233;en de chimie du solide, organis&#233; par Jean-Claude Bernier (Strasbourg a &#233;t&#233; choisi pour une raison strat&#233;gique,). L'intervalle entre deux congr&#232;s cons&#233;cutifs est maintenant de 3 ans ; le huiti&#232;me congr&#232;s europ&#233;en a lieu en juillet 2001 &#224; Oslo.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;HA : &lt;i&gt;Quel &#233;tait l'&#233;tat des relations entre science et industrie en France &#224; cette &#233;poque ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;PH : Il y avait une tradition de collaboration en m&#233;tallurgie et en chimie : Chaudron et ses &#233;l&#232;ves, Lacombe, B&#233;nard &#233;taient tr&#232;s impliqu&#233;s. Robert Collongues l'&#233;tait aussi dans le domaine des monocristaux. Mais il y avait une forte hostilit&#233; syndicale au nom des grands principes : il ne faut pas mettre la science au service des grands int&#233;r&#234;ts priv&#233;s. Les choses se sont att&#233;nu&#233;es &#224; la veille de l'&#233;lection pr&#233;sidentielle de 1981. J'ai eu la visite de M. Kahane, longtemps doyen &#224; Orsay, qui s'&#233;tait ralli&#233; &#224; la collaboration avec l'industrie priv&#233;e. Cela a facilit&#233; cette &#233;volution qui, de ma part, ne rencontrait aucune r&#233;sistance car j'&#233;tais un scientifique et je n'avais pas &#224; me poser des probl&#232;mes de d&#233;ontologie qui me paraissaient un peu artificiels. Mais une partie de mon entourage &#233;tait r&#233;ticente &#224; travailler avec l'industrie.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;HA : &lt;i&gt;Est-ce la crise p&#233;troli&#232;re de 1973 qui a contribu&#233; &#224; anoblir le rapprochement entre science et industrie ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;PH : Oui. Du fait de notre pr&#233;occupation entre propri&#233;t&#233;s physique et composition, nous avons &#233;t&#233; conduits &#224; travailler sur des compos&#233;s non-st&#339;chiom&#233;triques d'intercalation et nous avons constat&#233; apr&#232;s 1973 qu'il y avait possibilit&#233; d'intercalation ou d&#233;sintercalation &#224; basse temp&#233;rature gr&#226;ce &#224; l'&#233;lectrochimie comme on le faisait aux Etats Unis. Exxon et Bell &#233;taient plus concern&#233;s que nous par la crise de l'&#233;nergie.&lt;br class='autobr' /&gt;
Les recherches sur la conductivit&#233; ionique ont &#233;t&#233; encourag&#233;es par la crise de l'&#233;nergie. Apr&#232;s la zircone d&#233;j&#224; exploit&#233;e par Nernst, puis &#233;tudi&#233;e par la NASA et par Collongues ; il y avait eu AgI. Puis il y a eu l'alumine-b qui a suscit&#233; de nombreux travaux. CGE a d&#233;pens&#233; beaucoup d'argent. L'alumine-b est un mat&#233;riau tr&#232;s particulier. J'&#233;tais tr&#232;s sceptique. On a abaiss&#233; la temp&#233;rature de fonctionnement, mais c'est encore trop haut pour un v&#233;hicule &#233;lectrique. Et puis le soufre attaque la membrane. Finalement on a renonc&#233;, pensant qu'avec des batteries au lithium on irait plus loin. Les derniers efforts de d&#233;veloppement visaient plut&#244;t le stockage d'&#233;nergie en p&#233;riode creuse. Les nasicons eux ne sont pas attaqu&#233;s et ils pr&#233;sentent un avantage au plan fondamental car leur structure est plus simple. Ils ont de bonnes performances, qu'on pouvait ma&#238;triser avec une juste proportion de sodium.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;HA : &lt;i&gt;Pouvez vous &#233;voquer vos travaux sur la conduction ionique ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;PH : Avant 1973, on a publi&#233; un grand nombre de documents sur des conducteurs ioniques. On s'inspirait comme mod&#232;le de r&#233;flexion des bronzes de tungst&#232;ne bien que la plupart des travaux publi&#233;s &#224; l'&#233;poque fussent des &#233;tudes structurales et que les bronzes de tungst&#232;ne soient m&#233;talliques. On avait &#233;galement pr&#233;par&#233; une s&#233;rie de nouveaux bronzes de tungst&#232;ne. Ce travail s'est &#233;tendu &#224; des bronzes oxyfluor&#233;s, &#224; des bronzes de vanadium et de molybd&#232;ne contenant les deux cations vanadium et molybd&#232;ne plus le sodium et le lithium. Puis au d&#233;but des ann&#233;es 1970, on s'est attaqu&#233; aux premiers bronzes de mangan&#232;se NaxMnO2 et puis aux bronzes de cobalt KxCoO2.&lt;br class='autobr' /&gt;
Sur ces entrefaites il y a eu la grande crise p&#233;troli&#232;re de 1973. Les pays occidentaux ont eu peur de manquer d'&#233;nergie et donc on s'est occup&#233; de sources d'&#233;nergie non fossile et de stockage d'&#233;nergie. Un certain nombre de gens ont voulu faire des batteries. Exxon et la Bell Telephon, Whittingham et Murphy en particulier, ont travaill&#233; sur ces mat&#233;riaux non plus comme nous l'avions fait vers 500&#176;C avec des phases en &#233;quilibre thermodynamique mais &#224; basse temp&#233;rature par intercalation ou d&#233;sintercalation &#233;lectrochimique.&lt;br class='autobr' /&gt;
Une sp&#233;cialit&#233; &#224; Bordeaux c'&#233;tait les fluorures conducteurs. On rempla&#231;ait syst&#233;matiquement l'oxyg&#232;ne par du fluor parce qu'il a la m&#234;me taille et pr&#233;sente une liaison plus faible. On pouvait ainsi att&#233;nuer les interactions magn&#233;tiques. Comme pour la zircone, on dope les fluorures syst&#233;matiquement. Watanabe avait d&#233;j&#224; pr&#233;par&#233; les premi&#232;res batteries au fluor.&lt;br class='autobr' /&gt;
Jean Rouxel s'&#233;tait int&#233;ress&#233; &#224; l'&#233;poque o&#249; il &#233;tait mon &#233;l&#232;ve aux sulfures, aux sulfures &#224; couche en particulier. Entre les couches de FeOCl et FeSCl par exemple, on pouvait intercaler beaucoup de choses, comme l'ammoniac ou les amines. Jean Rouxel a pr&#233;par&#233; NaxTiS2, un mat&#233;riau qui avait &#233;t&#233; pr&#233;par&#233; par Rudorf &#224; Fribourg, qui le consid&#233;rait comme une curiosit&#233;. Mais Rouxel a tr&#232;s vite r&#233;alis&#233; qu'il devait y avoir un domaine d'existence. Or il s'est av&#233;r&#233; que Li xTiS2 avait un large domaine d'existence. Jean Rouxel a pouss&#233; dans cette voie et il a &#233;tudi&#233; un grand nombre de sulfures et s&#233;l&#233;nures &#224; feuillets alors que nous nous int&#233;ressions plut&#244;t aux oxydes. Il y avait une sorte d'accord empirique entre nous : Nantes les sulfures, Bordeaux, les oxydes. Nous avons &#233;tudi&#233; des mat&#233;riaux sur le plan de la synth&#232;se, dans des conditions d'&#233;quilibre thermodynamique plus que par intercalation d&#233;sintercalation.&lt;br class='autobr' /&gt;
Il y a une grande vari&#233;t&#233; de m&#233;thodes topologiques ou non de relative basse-temp&#233;rature qui permettent d'obtenir des mat&#233;riaux nouveaux. Mettre un m&#233;lange tr&#232;s fin de poudres sous hautes pression pour que se d&#233;clenche une r&#233;action brutale qui prend fin lorsque l'un des deux constituants initiaux a disparu. Donc c'est un &#233;chauffement brutal suivi d'une trempe. Ce qui permet d'obtenir des borures ou des silicium stables seulement &#224; haute temp&#233;rature.&lt;br class='autobr' /&gt;
Beaucoup de ces mat&#233;riaux sont m&#233;tastables mais on peut les utiliser dans des dispositifs.&lt;br class='autobr' /&gt;
Jean Rouxel a apport&#233; beaucoup dans le domaine des r&#233;actions d'intercalation-d&#233;sintercalation. Les oxydes lorsqu'on les d&#233;sintercale perdent des &#233;lectrons cationiques. C'est une oxydation cationique. Lorsqu'on part de LixCoO2 vers CoO2 on perd des Li+, mais on perd &#233;galement des &#233;lectrons qui proviennent des niveaux d. Mais pour les s&#233;l&#233;niures, ce sont les niveaux anioniques qui sont les plus &#233;lev&#233;s. Et lorsqu'on oxyde, c'est l'anion qu'on oxyde. On passe de Se2- &#224; Se- et de Se- &#224; Se pour des raisons de stabilit&#233; de liaison. Et Jean Rouxel a montr&#233; qu'il y avait une &#233;volution graduelle pour les &#233;l&#233;ments 3d &#224; l'&#233;tat de sulfure entre TiS2, qui a une structure &#224; couches, et CuS2 qui a une structure avec un ion S de type pyrite. Il a fait une analyse pr&#233;cise dans les cas douteux o&#249; les niveaux cationiques et anioniques sont &#224; peu pr&#232;s de m&#234;me &#233;nergie. L'analyse tr&#232;s fine des distances inter-atomiques lui a montr&#233; si c'&#233;tait le cation ou l'anion qui &#233;tait oxyd&#233;. Il a &#233;galement fait beaucoup de choses sur les bidimensionnels qui sont ici hors sujet.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;HA : &lt;i&gt;Qu'est-ce qui a manqu&#233; en France alors que les comp&#233;tences &#233;taient l&#224; pour donner l'impulsion sur les batteries au Lithium ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;PH : Il y a un tr&#232;s grand nombre de batteries r&#233;versibles au lithium pour des applications diverses depuis les montres jusqu'aux batteries de taille moyenne utilis&#233;es par les militaires pour observation spatiale avant bombardement. Mais le march&#233; important, c'est le v&#233;hicule &#233;lectrique, non polluant. Du moins en partie car on s'est r&#233;sign&#233; au v&#233;hicule hybride. Le v&#233;ritable march&#233; ce serait la voiture &#233;lectrique -&#233;ventuellement hybride- ce qui suppose des batteries de grande taille. Probablement l'&#233;lectrolyte sera un polym&#232;re PEO impr&#233;gn&#233; d'un sel de lithium avec un gros anion, type mat&#233;riau Armand. La cathode sera probablement riche en cobalt ce sera un mat&#233;riau voisin de LixCoO2, plut&#244;t un oxyde qu'un sulfure parce que la tension est plus &#233;lev&#233;e. Mais pour l'anode ce n'est pas encore &#233;vident. Si on pouvait faire mieux que les compos&#233;s d'intercalation du lithium on serait content. Mais actuellement il n'y a pas encore de solution. Il y a donc premi&#232;rement un probl&#232;me de mat&#233;riau qui freine cette &#233;volution. Deuxi&#232;mement il y a un probl&#232;me de prix. Ajoutez &#224; cela qu'une batterie au lithium doit &#234;tre scell&#233;e car le lithium est sensible &#224; l'atmosph&#232;re et vous voyez que ce n'est pas &#233;vident. Une solution concurrente est la batterie hydrog&#232;ne consistant &#224; stocker l'hydrog&#232;ne dans un alliage m&#233;tallique et puis &#224; lib&#233;rer l'hydrog&#232;ne. Ce mod&#232;le permet des puissances plus &#233;lev&#233;es que la batterie au lithium mais l&#224; aussi il y a un probl&#232;me de vieillissement car apr&#232;s un certain nombre de cycles, l'alliage s'oxyde car l'oxyde est plus stable que l'hydrure. Ce probl&#232;me n'est pas encore r&#233;solu avec un co&#251;t acceptable pour l'utilisateur. A cet &#233;gard, il y a une coupure entre le scientifique et l'utilisateur.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;HA : &lt;i&gt;Concernant les relations entre physique et chimie qu'est-ce qui a favoris&#233; le rapprochement ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;PH : Les physiciens ont fait des efforts pour parler un langage plus proche de celui des chimistes. J'ai parl&#233; d&#233;j&#224; de John Goodenough. Nevil Mott aussi &#233;tait un homme qui s'exprimait dans un langage compr&#233;hensible pour un chimiste. Par exemple, lorsqu'il a obtenu des transitions isolantes par changement de composition au sein d'un domaine d'existence, on comprenait ses pr&#233;occupations et il comprenait les n&#244;tres bien qu'on raisonne sur des mod&#232;les un peu diff&#233;rents. On est ainsi arriv&#233; &#224; pr&#233;parer dans des bronzes de tungst&#232;ne oxyfluor&#233;s des mat&#233;riaux qui sans changement de structure manifestaient une transition m&#233;tal-isolant. Les physiciens ont fait des progr&#232;s. L'&#233;quipe de Friedel &#233;tait tr&#232;s pr&#233;occup&#233;e de parler un langage qui nous &#233;tait commun. Je pense &#224; Denis J&#233;r&#244;me, Claude Berthier &#224; Grenoble.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;HA : &lt;i&gt;Le travail de physiciens sur la caract&#233;risation tr&#232;s fine vous a-t-il aid&#233; ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;PH : Je me souviens de discussions &#224; Orsay sur les hexaborures. Les physiciens voulaient des mat&#233;riaux qu'on appelait thermo-ioniques - mais c'est un mot malheureux : on devrait plut&#244;t dire thermo-&#233;lectronique - c'est &#224; dire ayant un faible potentiel d'ionisation et susceptibles de cracher un jet d'&#233;lectrons relativement puissant sous tension faible. On en a fait une &#233;tude syst&#233;matique et on a essay&#233; de pr&#233;parer des cristaux.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;HA : &lt;i&gt;Et quel &#233;tait l'enjeu ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;PH : L'enjeu &#233;tait d'avoir ponctuellement un faisceau d'&#233;lectrons puissant, par exemple pour des soudures, des soudures localis&#233;es. Outre la collaboration avec les physiciens d'Orsay on a aussi collabor&#233; avec ceux de Grenoble. Plus que ceux d'Orsay, les physiciens de Grenoble avaient un langage tr&#232;s compr&#233;hensible. Il y avait un grand homme &#224; Grenoble, Louis N&#233;el. Il avait publi&#233; son travail sur le ferrimagn&#233;tisme en s'appuyant sur des mod&#232;les structuraux tr&#232;s clairs. La r&#233;partition des cations entre les sites t&#233;tra&#233;driques et les sites octa&#233;driques de la structure spinelle. Donc on comprenait pourquoi on avait des interactions d'abord anti-ferromagn&#233;tiques - ce qui constitue la base du ferrimagn&#233;tisme - entre des sites t&#233;tra&#233;driques A et des sites octa&#233;driques B, et pourquoi l'aimantation r&#233;sultante &#233;tait accrue lorsque le r&#233;seau pr&#233;valent contenait des cations avec beaucoup d'&#233;lectrons d c&#233;libataires. Tous ces travaux - encourag&#233;s par les recherches militaires - ont permis une collaboration tr&#232;s fructueuse avec Grenoble. Je pense &#224; Bertaut en particulier. Nous avons &#233;t&#233; encourag&#233;s, par exemple, &#224; faire des &#233;tudes basse-temp&#233;rature par Pauthenay qui nous a dit : c'est aux basses- temp&#233;ratures qu'on d&#233;tecte les ph&#233;nom&#232;nes peu &#233;nerg&#233;tiques.&lt;br class='autobr' /&gt;
Alors c'est l'&#233;poque o&#249; nous avons manqu&#233; le prix Nobel - Je dis cela en plaisantant, bien s&#251;r !-. Nous avons pr&#233;par&#233; les premiers oxydes purs de Cu3+ : par exemple SrLaCuO4. Nous avions une telle habitude des solutions solides qu'on pouvait imaginer de pr&#233;parer une solution solide avec La2CuO4 contenant du Cu2+. Mais pour nous, les solutions solides, c'&#233;tait du travail secondaire. On cherchait &#224; pr&#233;parer des oxydes purs. Si on avait &#233;t&#233; pr&#233;occup&#233; des solutions solides on aurait pu trouver des oxydes contenant &#224; la fois du cuivre Cu 2+ et 3++. Comme par routine on caract&#233;risait tous nos mat&#233;riaux jusqu'&#224; la temp&#233;rature de l'h&#233;lium liquide, on aurait trouv&#233; la supraconductivit&#233;. On ne l'a pas fait parce qu'on voulait des phases pures et non pas des solutions solides.&lt;br class='autobr' /&gt;
Bernard Raveau l'a fait avant Alex M&#252;ller. Il avait un objectif : comprendre ce qui se passait au point de vue des corr&#233;lations. Passer d'un semi-conducteur &#224; un m&#233;tal. M&#252;ller &#233;tait un tr&#232;s grand physicien. Il a &#233;t&#233; surpris aussi mais il a tout de suite expliqu&#233;. Raveau a fait ses solutions solides. C'est m&#234;me moi qui ai transmis sa publication au M[aterials] R[esearch] B[ulletin] mais j'ai regrett&#233; &#224; l'&#233;poque qu'il n'ait pas fait de mesure &#224; l'h&#233;lium liquide.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;HA : &lt;i&gt;Apr&#232;s avoir &#233;voqu&#233; vos collaborations en France, pourriez vous parler de vos liens avec l'&#233;tranger ? Vous avez &#233;t&#233; pr&#233;curseur pour les relations scientifiques avec les pays en voie de d&#233;veloppement comme la Chine, le Maroc et l'Inde. Quelles &#233;taient vos motivations ? Comment voyez-vous la science des mat&#233;riaux dans ces pays ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;PH : J'ai toujours &#233;t&#233; persuad&#233; que la science devait &#234;tre internationale. Cela me distingue de beaucoup de mes compatriotes. Je suis toujours &#233;tonn&#233; que l'on fasse des qu&#234;tes pour aider la recherche en France sur le SIDA. Toute la recherche sur le SIDA, toute recherche de pointe est internationale et ce n'est pas parce que la France d&#233;pensera un peu plus d'argent que n&#233;cessairement, il y aura des progr&#232;s significatifs. La science doit &#234;tre internationale.&lt;br class='autobr' /&gt;
J'ai donc eu des liens d'abord avec les pays d&#233;velopp&#233;s car dans ce type de relation on se fait conna&#238;tre mais aussi on apprend. Je suis all&#233; souvent aux Etats Unis, moins par enthousiasme culturel, que parce qu'on y rencontre des gens de qualit&#233;. J'ai rencontr&#233; Goodenough, Al Cotton... j'ai rencontr&#233; &#224; Berkeley ou &#224; Stanford des gens de grande qualit&#233;. J'ai eu des relations suivies pendant un temps avec la Grande Bretagne mais les Anglais ont un sentiment de quant &#224; soi. J'esp&#232;re qu'avec le temps la Grande Bretagne va &#233;voluer vers une int&#233;gration dans l'Europe. Les Allemands sont tr&#232;s favorables &#224; cette int&#233;gration. D&#232;s 1961 j'avais pris l'initiative d'emmener tout mon laboratoire en Allemagne pour un voyage de 15 jours. On est all&#233; &#224; Stuttgart, Karlsruhe, Heidelberg, Darmstadt, Giessen, G&#246;ttingen etc.. On a &#233;t&#233; tr&#232;s bien re&#231;u par Wilhelm Klemm avec qui j'ai toujours entretenu d'excellentes relations. Mais ses &#233;l&#232;ves &#233;taient jaloux. Les Allemands se sont sentis bouscul&#233;s parce qu'un peu jaloux de gens qui faisaient beaucoup de bruit. Ils avaient une bonne tradition de chimie pr&#233;parative, en relation avec l'industrie. Les Allemands ont compris que pour faire des mat&#233;riaux nouveaux il fallait des techniques nouvelles comme la haute pression. Mais leur but c'&#233;tait la performance tandis que le n&#244;tre c'&#233;tait de stabiliser des structures &#233;lectroniques peu usuelles, gr&#226;ce &#224; la synth&#232;se. Les Allemands se sont senti un peu g&#234;n&#233;s. Les gens leur disaient : vous utilisez des &#233;quipements de haute pression mais ce que vous faites c'est de la botanique alors qu'il faudrait r&#233;fl&#233;chir. Le but d'un &#233;quipement est de faire des mat&#233;riaux &#224; fa&#231;on pour r&#233;pondre &#224; des probl&#232;mes d&#233;termin&#233;s. Les coll&#232;gues allemands avaient un autre point de vue et je regrette qu'il n'y ait pas eu davantage de liens.&lt;br class='autobr' /&gt;
En revanche, toujours parmi les pays d&#233;velopp&#233;s, j'ai eu beaucoup de liens avec l'Europe de l'Est. Pour deux raisons. D'abord, il y avait des gens de qualit&#233; chez les Sovi&#233;tiques, les Polonais et les Tch&#232;ques. De plus j'&#233;tais un peu agac&#233; de cette Europe coup&#233;e en deux du fait de la guerre froide. Donc je trouvais raisonnable qu'il y ait une pr&#233;sence de la France l&#224; o&#249; c'&#233;tait relativement facile, c'est &#224; dire la science. C'&#233;tait int&#233;ressant pour eux et pour nous car nous avons eu de ces pays des personnes remarquables. J'ai eu des relations syst&#233;matiques avec des laboratoires &#224; Prague, Cracovie, &#224; Moscou, &#224; Kiev, Novosibirsk, &#224; Sofia. Avec la Roumanie, c'&#233;tait impossible car Madame Ceaucescu interdisait aux scientifiques de discuter avec des &#233;trangers.&lt;br class='autobr' /&gt;
Avec les pays en voie de d&#233;veloppement, la situation change d'un pays &#224; l'autre. J'ai eu des relations avec le Maroc parce que l'universit&#233; de Bordeaux et l'universit&#233; de Rabat avaient des liens traditionnels. Je suis all&#233; y faire cours. Il y avait de tr&#232;s bons &#233;tudiants je les ai encourag&#233;s &#224; faire une th&#232;se. Le nombre a cr&#251; consid&#233;rablement. 30 ou 35 Marocains ont fait des th&#232;ses avec moi. J'avais une politique de s&#233;lection impitoyable ; je prenais les meilleurs et je les surpayais. Je voulais qu'ils n'aient pas de souci mat&#233;riel pendant leur th&#232;se. J'ai eu des liens plus occasionnels avec la R&#233;publique du Congo et quelques Tunisiens mais ils pr&#233;f&#233;raient Marseille.&lt;br class='autobr' /&gt;
Avec la Chine j'ai fait un choix politique. J'ai compris que la Chine &#233;tait un potentiel &#233;conomique et humain. La France devait &#234;tre pr&#233;sente &#224; un moment o&#249; la Chine &#233;tait exclusivement tourn&#233;e vers les Etats-Unis. Je suis all&#233; souvent en Chine. J'ai fait venir des &#233;tudiants chinois en les choisissant bien s&#251;r excellents. Mes espoirs ont &#233;t&#233; d&#233;pass&#233;s par le succ&#232;s car ils ne sont pas retourn&#233;s en Chine mais partis au Canada ou aux Etats-Unis comme professeurs ou dans l'industrie. Ils se sont bien d&#233;brouill&#233;s. Maintenant c'est diff&#233;rent ; une majorit&#233; d'&#233;tudiants chinois reviennent en Chine.&lt;br class='autobr' /&gt;
L'Inde est aussi un pays avec lequel j'ai eu des relations. C'est une soci&#233;t&#233; o&#249; le savoir est respect&#233;, une science de caste malgr&#233; l'abolition officielle des castes. Tha&#239;lande, Malaisie, Indon&#233;sie...j'ai privil&#233;gi&#233; les pays asiatiques par rapport aux pays africains car la culture asiatique favorise la r&#233;flexion m&#233;taphysique et par cons&#233;quent scientifique. N&#233;anmoins j'ai eu aussi des collaborations avec le Br&#233;sil, le Chili et l'Argentine. Le but &#233;tant d'aider ces pays dans leur d&#233;veloppement industriel. Je suis d'ailleurs membre de l'Acad&#233;mie des sciences br&#233;silienne depuis 1988.&lt;br class='autobr' /&gt;
Vis &#224; vis des &#233;tudiants du tiers monde, j'ai toujours consid&#233;r&#233; comme ma responsabilit&#233; de leur donner une th&#232;se originale et non pas, comme on le fait souvent, de leur faire remplir des vides dans le laboratoire ou de servir de main d'&#339;uvre. Les &#233;tudiants du tiers monde que l'on fait venir en Europe il faut bien les choisir et bien les former pour qu'ils deviennent des ma&#238;tres.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;HA : &lt;i&gt;Je serai curieux de conna&#238;tre votre point de vue sur l'&#233;volution de la chimie des mat&#233;riaux et le rapprochement avec la biologie.&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;PH : Je ne me sens pas comp&#233;tent dans l'interface chimie/biologie. Mais mon exp&#233;rience &#224; l'interface physique et chimie me rend plut&#244;t sympathique cette perspective d'une ouverture de la chimie vers la biologie. Elle est d&#233;fendue par Pierre Pottier, Guy Ourisson, Corriu.&lt;br class='autobr' /&gt;
Sur l'interface physique/chimie, cela s'est moins bien pass&#233;. Peut-&#234;tre que je n'ai pas su convaincre. Quand on pr&#234;che, on se fait des adeptes mais aussi des ennemis. Cela est vrai au CNRS. Celui qui pr&#234;che secoue les caciques, les gens en place. Quelqu'un comme Fernand Gallais &#233;tait fermement hostile &#224; mon projet d'interface avec la physique. Par contre j'ai rencontr&#233; beaucoup de sympathies du c&#244;t&#233; de Pottier, de Jacques Livage.&lt;br class='autobr' /&gt;
Pour revenir aux oxydes supraconducteurs, il s'agit d'un cas int&#233;ressant de collaboration entre physiciens et chimistes. Tr&#232;s vite, j'ai compris que l'on avait plafonn&#233; et puis &#224; un moment donn&#233; il &#233;tait clair que Tc &#233;tait d'autant plus &#233;lev&#233; que la bande de conduction &#233;tait plus &#233;troite. Et plus la bande de conduction est &#233;troite plus le mat&#233;riau est instable et a tendance &#224; se dismuter en donnant un m&#233;lange de deux phases. J'ai compris cela tr&#232;s vite mais beaucoup ne l'ont pas compris. Il y a donc eu un emballement. Il a rapproch&#233; les chimistes des physiciens. Il est dommage que personne n'ait propos&#233; un mod&#232;le simple permettant aux chimistes d'innover de mani&#232;re simple comme on avait innov&#233; dans le domaine de la conductivit&#233; ionique, du magn&#233;tisme, de la ferro&#233;lectricit&#233;, des magn&#233;to-optiques ... ou m&#234;me des composites thermo-structuraux. Il a manqu&#233; quelqu'un qui propose un mod&#232;le intuitif liant les propri&#233;t&#233;s &#224; la liaison chimique. Goodenough aurait pu le faire mais il &#233;tait trop vieux, trop press&#233; de publier des mat&#233;riaux miracles. Les mat&#233;riaux miracles sont difficiles &#224; reproduire. Celui qui essaie il n'a pas le m&#234;me four ... Ces mat&#233;riaux sont m&#233;tastables, ils ne sont jamais parfaitement purs. Ils n'ont jamais le m&#234;me nombre de lacunes d'oxyg&#232;ne. Donc ce n'est jamais parfaitement r&#233;p&#233;titif. Cela exclut toute r&#233;plication s&#233;rieuse parce qu'un mat&#233;riau n'est utilisable industriellement que s'il est relativement simple &#224; pr&#233;parer et &#224; utiliser. Telle est la raison de l'&#233;chec de la diode Josephson sur laquelle IBM a d&#233;pens&#233; beaucoup d'argent. A l'&#233;poque j'&#233;tais d'ailleurs conseiller d'IBM.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;BBV : &lt;i&gt;Est-ce qu'il y a eu des mat&#233;riaux sortis de vote laboratoire qui ont &#233;t&#233; industrialis&#233;s ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;PH : Il y a d'abord eu les varistors. J'ai fait beaucoup avec la Thomson CSF dans ce domaine. Il y a eu LixCoO2 et puis il y a les c&#233;ramiques composites de R. Naslain : fibres de carbone infiltr&#233;es par SiC qui permet de travailler &#224; des hautes temp&#233;ratures pour les mat&#233;riaux de rentr&#233;e de la fus&#233;e ou du satellite dans l'atmosph&#232;re. Car lorsque l'engin revient dans l'atmosph&#232;re, il y a un risque d'oxydation. L'astuce consistait &#224; infiltrer - non pas d&#233;poser en surface - SiC &#224; partir d'une phase vapeur. Alors &#224; l'air SiC s'oxyde en donnant SiO2 qui s'infiltre dans le mat&#233;riau &#224; base de carbone et permet de le prolonger.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;BBV : &lt;i&gt;Pourriez vous pr&#233;ciser quelles &#233;taient vos relations avec l'industrie et comment elles ont &#233;volu&#233; ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;PH : J'ai toujours eu des relations avec l'industrie. Quand j'&#233;tais &#224; Rennes j'ai &#233;t&#233; contact&#233; par Raymond Paul, un des responsables de la recherche &#224; Rh&#244;ne Poulenc et il m'a vivement encourag&#233; &#224; travailler avec Rh&#244;ne Poulenc. J'ai eu plusieurs bourses de th&#232;ses pay&#233;es par l'industrie - parfois il fallait publier des r&#233;sultats plus tard. Rh&#244;ne Poulenc a pay&#233; la th&#232;se de Michel Pouchard sur les bronzes de vanadium au d&#233;but des ann&#233;es 60. Ensuite il m'a paru tout naturel de travailler avec l'industrie. J'ai travaill&#233; avec Saint-Gobain sur les verres, en particulier sur les verres conducteurs du lithium et du sodium avec Levasseur, sur les verres sulfur&#233;s &#224; base de B2S3. Les verres sont un mat&#233;riau merveilleux. Ils ont une composition qui est flexible. Vous tombez un peu &#224; c&#244;t&#233;, cela n'a pas d'importance les propri&#233;t&#233;s ne sont gu&#232;re modifi&#233;es. Vous n'avez pas le probl&#232;me des mat&#233;riaux cristallins o&#249;, par suite de la moindre erreur, de la moindre difficult&#233; de pr&#233;paration, une deuxi&#232;me phase d'impuret&#233;s se forme &#224; c&#244;t&#233;. L&#224; il vous reste une phase. D'autant plus qu'on peut pr&#233;parer les verres par trempe brutale donc &#233;norm&#233;ment de mat&#233;riaux sont vitreux alors qu'il y a 30 ou 40 ans c'&#233;tait diff&#233;rent.&lt;br class='autobr' /&gt;
J'ai eu beaucoup de liens avec l'industrie locale : A&#233;rospatiale et SNECMA, avec SNPA (soci&#233;t&#233; nationale des p&#233;troles d'aquitaine : anc&#234;tre d'Elf) sur comment purifier le gaz de Lacq...Ma porte &#233;tait toujours ouverte, on &#233;largissait le champ de nos recherches &#224; la demande car l'industrie n'est pas un boulet.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;BBV : &lt;i&gt;Est-ce que ces liens &#233;taient encourag&#233;s par le CNRS ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;PH : Le CNRS &#233;tait inform&#233; bien s&#251;r. Et puis quand on est devenu un laboratoire propre en 1966 Curien &#233;tait tr&#232;s favorable aux relations avec l'industrie. On a un des contrats avec Saint-Gobain, avec Rh&#244;ne Poulenc devenu Rhodia, avec Ugine Kuhlman devenu P&#233;chiney. Nous avons m&#234;me eu des liens avec General Electric aux USA pour les borures, avec BASF sur le di-oxyde de chrome pour les bandes d'enregistrement.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;BBV : &lt;i&gt;Quelles sont les m&#233;thodes et techniques utilis&#233;es dans votre laboratoire ? Et comment ont-elles &#233;volu&#233; au cours de votre carri&#232;re ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;PH : Au d&#233;but le B-A-BA c'&#233;tait la diffraction X. Puis pour bien comprendre la structure on a eu un &#233;quipement pour des monocristaux. On a pr&#233;par&#233; des mono-cristaux pour d&#233;terminer les structures. Maintenant on a fait de gros progr&#232;s et on peut sur des spectres de poudres lorsque la poudre est de bonne qualit&#233; d&#233;terminer la structure par les m&#233;thodes Riedveld en faisant des hypoth&#232;ses simples sur la structure la plus probable. La diffraction X a &#233;t&#233; fondamentale et a d&#233;bouch&#233; ensuite sur la microscopie &#233;lectronique en transmission qui permet de voir les d&#233;fauts locaux. C'est merveilleux. La diffraction X &#233;tait une m&#233;thode &#224; grande distance. Par contre la microscopie &#233;lectronique en transmission vous donne les d&#233;fauts localis&#233;s et &#233;tendus. C'est une pr&#233;occupation que j'ai eu beaucoup &#224; propos de non-st&#339;chiom&#233;trie. Quand on passe d'une phase perovskite ABO3 &#224; une phase brownmill&#233;rite A2B2O5, on perd de l'oxyg&#232;ne. Alors &#224; haute temp&#233;rature les lacunes d'oxyg&#232;ne sont d&#233;sordonn&#233;es. A temp&#233;rature plus basse, elles s'ordonnent en fonction du cation B. Quand c'est du fer ou du gallium, un cation isotrope, on a soit des t&#233;tra&#232;dres parce qu'il y a pas de lacune, soit des octa&#232;dres car les lacunes marchent par deux. Donc dans une structure brownmill&#233;rite on a une s&#233;quence octa&#232;dre,-t&#233;tra&#232;dre, octa&#232;dre-t&#233;tra&#232;dre, et dans la structure perovskite c'est octa&#232;dre-octa&#232;dre-octa&#232;dre. Alors on peut trouver &#224; condition de faire des recuits &#224; temp&#233;rature assez basse - quelques centaines de degr&#233;s - des phases interm&#233;diaires avec 2 couches octa&#232;dres, 1 couche t&#233;tra&#232;dre, 3 couches octa&#232;dres, 1 couche t&#233;tra&#232;dre. Et bien s&#251;r quand on chauffe le d&#233;sordre s'installe &#224; cause de l'entropie d'empilement. On a &#233;tudi&#233; de mani&#232;re syst&#233;matique comment on passe de d&#233;fauts isol&#233;s aux d&#233;fauts ordonn&#233;s, &#233;tendus. Et cela a des cons&#233;quences au point de vue de la conductivit&#233; de l'ion oxyg&#232;ne. Parce que maintenant on a de nouvelles pr&#233;occupations. On veut par exemple extraire l'oxyg&#232;ne de l'air par des membranes de perovskite lacunaire ou d&#233;truire les traces de CO en oxydant par l'eau. Dans ce cas, vous avez CO2 - qui est quand m&#234;me moins toxique que CO, sauf sur le plan id&#233;ologique - et vous avez de l'hydrog&#232;ne. On utilise des perovskites lacunaires qui doivent &#234;tre conducteurs de l'oxyg&#232;ne - ce qui est normal - mais aussi conducteurs &#233;lectroniques car le transfert se fait sous tension donc il faut que les ions O2- migrent &#224; travers les lacunes de la structure. Il y a donc un aspect pratique pour les capteurs d'oxyg&#232;ne, la purification des gaz. Les Norv&#233;giens utilisent ces m&#233;thodes massivement pour transformer le gaz de la Mer du Nord en un gaz exempt de CO. Norsk-Hydro d&#233;pense des sommes consid&#233;rables pour cela. J'ai &#233;t&#233; invit&#233; pour parler avec les gens impliqu&#233;s par ces recherches.&lt;br class='autobr' /&gt;
Donc pour r&#233;sumer : nos efforts se sont situ&#233;s &#224; l'interface entre physique et chimie et se concentraient sur l'&#233;tude des relations entre composition, structure et propri&#233;t&#233;s avec la perspective d'applications industrielles.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;i&gt;Fin de l'enregistrement&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;hr class=&#034;spip&#034; /&gt;
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&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href='https://www.sho.espci.fr/spip.php?page=sommaire'&gt;accueil du site&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
		&lt;div class='rss_ps'&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Pour citer l'entretien :&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&#171; Entretien avec Paul Hagenmuller &#187;, par Bernadette Bensaude-Vincent et Herv&#233; Arribart, 12 juin 2001 &lt;i&gt;Sciences : histoire orale&lt;/i&gt;, &lt;a href='https://www.sho.espci.fr/spip.php?article124' class=&#034;spip_in&#034;&gt;https://sho.spip.espci.fr/spip.php?article124&lt;/a&gt;.
&lt;br /&gt;&#8212; &lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Entretien avec Paul Hagenmuller, par Bernadette Bensaude-Vincent et Herv&#233; Arribart, 12 juin 2001&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Lieu : Paris, France&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Support : enregistrement sur cassette&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href='https://www.sho.espci.fr/spip.php?article124' class=&#034;spip_in&#034;&gt;Transcription&lt;/a&gt; : &lt;a href='https://www.sho.espci.fr/spip.php?article7' class=&#034;spip_in&#034;&gt;Bernadette Bensaude-Vincent&lt;/a&gt; et &lt;a href='https://www.sho.espci.fr/spip.php?article47' class=&#034;spip_in&#034;&gt;Herv&#233; Arribart&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Edition en ligne : &lt;a href='https://www.sho.espci.fr/spip.php?article79' class=&#034;spip_in&#034;&gt;Sophie Jourdin&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
		</content:encoded>


		

	</item>
<item xml:lang="fr">
		<title>BOILOT Jean-Pierre, 2000-12-12</title>
		<link>https://www.sho.espci.fr/spip.php?article121</link>
		<guid isPermaLink="true">https://www.sho.espci.fr/spip.php?article121</guid>
		<dc:date>2011-10-28T12:00:58Z</dc:date>
		<dc:format>text/html</dc:format>
		<dc:language>fr</dc:language>
		<dc:creator>Sophie Jourdin</dc:creator>


		<dc:subject>chimie du solide</dc:subject>
		<dc:subject>Rouxel, Jean</dc:subject>
		<dc:subject>solid state ionics</dc:subject>
		<dc:subject>Hagenmuller, Paul</dc:subject>
		<dc:subject> [SIGLES UTILIS&#201;S]</dc:subject>
		<dc:subject>physique du solide</dc:subject>
		<dc:subject>Collongues, Robert</dc:subject>
		<dc:subject>pile &#224; combustible</dc:subject>
		<dc:subject>alumine b&#234;ta</dc:subject>
		<dc:subject>chimie douce</dc:subject>
		<dc:subject>chimie physique</dc:subject>
		<dc:subject>Friedel, Jacques </dc:subject>
		<dc:subject>Centre national de la recherche scientifique (CNRS)</dc:subject>
		<dc:subject>Saint-Gobain recherche</dc:subject>
		<dc:subject>verre</dc:subject>
		<dc:subject>r&#233;sonance magn&#233;tique nucl&#233;aire (NMR)</dc:subject>
		<dc:subject>Barboux, Philippe</dc:subject>

		<description>
&lt;p&gt;Jean-Pierre Boilot worked on b-alumina in the 1970s and subsequently on ionic conductors within the framework of chimie douce. &lt;br class='autobr' /&gt; BERNADETTE BENSAUDE-VINCENT (BBV) : Quel fut votre parcours individuel ? &lt;br class='autobr' /&gt;
JPB : Je suis entr&#233; au laboratoire Collongues en 1971, &#233;tant assistant &#224; l'Ecole de c&#233;ramique de S&#232;vres o&#249; j'enseignais la chimie. Mon sujet de th&#232;se portait sur l'alumine-b plus exactement sur les gallates. On cherchait &#224; am&#233;liorer la conduction ionique en rempla&#231;ant l'aluminium par du (&#8230;)&lt;/p&gt;


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&lt;a href="https://www.sho.espci.fr/spip.php?mot28" rel="tag"&gt;chimie du solide&lt;/a&gt;, 
&lt;a href="https://www.sho.espci.fr/spip.php?mot38" rel="tag"&gt;Rouxel, Jean&lt;/a&gt;, 
&lt;a href="https://www.sho.espci.fr/spip.php?mot44" rel="tag"&gt;solid state ionics&lt;/a&gt;, 
&lt;a href="https://www.sho.espci.fr/spip.php?mot48" rel="tag"&gt;Hagenmuller, Paul&lt;/a&gt;, 
&lt;a href="https://www.sho.espci.fr/spip.php?mot51" rel="tag"&gt; [SIGLES UTILIS&#201;S]&lt;/a&gt;, 
&lt;a href="https://www.sho.espci.fr/spip.php?mot52" rel="tag"&gt;physique du solide&lt;/a&gt;, 
&lt;a href="https://www.sho.espci.fr/spip.php?mot61" rel="tag"&gt;Collongues, Robert&lt;/a&gt;, 
&lt;a href="https://www.sho.espci.fr/spip.php?mot64" rel="tag"&gt;pile &#224; combustible&lt;/a&gt;, 
&lt;a href="https://www.sho.espci.fr/spip.php?mot65" rel="tag"&gt;alumine b&#234;ta&lt;/a&gt;, 
&lt;a href="https://www.sho.espci.fr/spip.php?mot66" rel="tag"&gt;chimie douce&lt;/a&gt;, 
&lt;a href="https://www.sho.espci.fr/spip.php?mot67" rel="tag"&gt;chimie physique&lt;/a&gt;, 
&lt;a href="https://www.sho.espci.fr/spip.php?mot113" rel="tag"&gt;Friedel, Jacques &lt;/a&gt;, 
&lt;a href="https://www.sho.espci.fr/spip.php?mot127" rel="tag"&gt;Centre national de la recherche scientifique (CNRS)&lt;/a&gt;, 
&lt;a href="https://www.sho.espci.fr/spip.php?mot136" rel="tag"&gt;Saint-Gobain recherche&lt;/a&gt;, 
&lt;a href="https://www.sho.espci.fr/spip.php?mot142" rel="tag"&gt;verre&lt;/a&gt;, 
&lt;a href="https://www.sho.espci.fr/spip.php?mot146" rel="tag"&gt;r&#233;sonance magn&#233;tique nucl&#233;aire (NMR)&lt;/a&gt;, 
&lt;a href="https://www.sho.espci.fr/spip.php?mot150" rel="tag"&gt;Barboux, Philippe&lt;/a&gt;

		</description>


 <content:encoded>&lt;div class='rss_chapo'&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Jean-Pierre Boilot&lt;/strong&gt; worked on b-alumina in the 1970s and subsequently on ionic conductors within the framework of chimie douce.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
		&lt;div class='rss_texte'&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;BERNADETTE BENSAUDE-VINCENT (BBV) : &lt;i&gt;Quel fut votre parcours individuel ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;JPB : Je suis entr&#233; au laboratoire Collongues en 1971, &#233;tant assistant &#224; l'Ecole de c&#233;ramique de S&#232;vres o&#249; j'enseignais la chimie. Mon sujet de th&#232;se portait sur l'alumine-b plus exactement sur les gallates. On cherchait &#224; am&#233;liorer la conduction ionique en rempla&#231;ant l'aluminium par du gallium. On connaissait, bien s&#251;r, les travaux de Yao et Kummer et on savait d&#233;j&#224; &#233;changer les ions sodium par d'autres. Mais ceci n'a constitu&#233; qu'un chapitre de ma th&#232;se qui devait en avoir 5 ou 6. &lt;br class='autobr' /&gt;
Apr&#232;s j'ai eu un r&#244;le tr&#232;s particulier : travailler &#224; l'interface de la physique et de la chimie. Cette exp&#233;rience de collaboration de la physique et de la chimie du solide, c'&#233;tait une innovation. Seul Yves Le Car avait commenc&#233; avant moi. Lui avait un financement industriel, avec CGE qui est devenu &lt;a href=&#034;http://www.alcatel.com&#034; class=&#034;spip_out&#034; rel=&#034;external&#034;&gt;Alcatel&lt;/a&gt;. Cette collaboration est issue de discussions entre Robert Collongues et Andr&#233; Guinier qui &#233;tait responsable d'un groupe de physique du solide &#224; Orsay au b&#226;timent 510. Le Car a commenc&#233; &#224; faire de la diffusion des rayons X, organisation des ions de conduction dans alumine-b. J'ai poursuivi dans cette voie. La collaboration s'est &#233;tendue. Je passais 50% de mon temps au labo Collongues et 50% en physique chez Guinier et chez J&#233;r&#244;me, un autre groupe de physique du solide qui faisait de la RMN. Une grande partie de ma th&#232;se concernait des probl&#232;mes fondamentaux : comment les ions s'organisent, ordre d&#233;sordre, st&#339;chiom&#233;trie.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;BBV : &lt;i&gt;Quels &#233;taient les mod&#232;les th&#233;oriques &#224; l'&#233;poque ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;JPB : Peu de choses pour comprendre les m&#233;canismes de conduction. C'est venu plus tard. Les physiciens durs ont attaqu&#233; le probl&#232;me plus tard.&lt;br class='autobr' /&gt;
J'ai soutenu ma th&#232;se d'Etat en 1975 devant un jury tr&#232;s impressionnant : Jacques Friedel, Jean Rouxel, Michel Fayard, qui est devenu directeur du secteur chimie au CNRS, Jeanine Th&#233;ry et Robert Collongues. Je me souviens avoir &#233;t&#233; mauvais, je n'&#233;tais pas fier de moi.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;BBV : &lt;i&gt;Avez-vous poursuivi sur alumine-b ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;JPB : Oui de 1975 &#224; 82 j'ai travaill&#233; avec Gaston Colin, cristallographe et avec Philippe Colomban qui est arriv&#233; au labo Collongues. Je l'avais eu comme &#233;tudiant &#224; l'&#233;cole de c&#233;ramique. On a travaill&#233; essentiellement sur deux aspects : alumine-b st&#339;chiom&#233;trique et alumine-b''. M&#234;me type de base : compr&#233;hension, organisation des ions en utilisant les param&#232;tres fondamentaux du solide : r&#233;pulsion entre ions, transition au d&#233;sordre etc.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;BBV : &lt;i&gt;Y avait-il alors une communaut&#233; fran&#231;aise de chercheurs sur l'alumine-b ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;JPB : Oui, il y avait des s&#233;minaires organis&#233;s ici &#224; Polytechnique par Bernard Sapoval-&gt;&lt;a href=&#034;http://pmc.polytechnique.fr/bs/english.html&#034; class=&#034;spip_url spip_out auto&#034; rel=&#034;nofollow external&#034;&gt;http://pmc.polytechnique.fr/bs/english.html&lt;/a&gt;] et Herv&#233; Arribart. Les gens ici ont commenc&#233; &#224; travailler sur l'alumine-b avec des porteurs de protons et ils utilisaient la RMN. &lt;br class='autobr' /&gt;
Donc si l'on fait le bilan de ces 10 ans, il y a deux caract&#233;ristiques propres &#224; ce sujet&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;ol class=&#034;spip&#034; role=&#034;list&#034;&gt;&lt;li&gt; - C'&#233;taient les premi&#232;res recherches fondamentales men&#233;es parall&#232;lement &#224; la recherche industrielle car CGE en France, Ford, General Electric aux USA faisaient des recherches plus appliqu&#233;es sur les accumulateurs sodium-soufre. C'&#233;tait particuli&#232;rement motivant de voir qu'il y avait des possibilit&#233;s d'application.&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li&gt; - Deuxi&#232;me caract&#233;ristique : c'&#233;tait la possibilit&#233; de travaux &#224; l'interface physique-chimie. Ces deux aspects l&#224; se retrouvent plus tard dans les recherches sur les supra-conducteurs au cours des ann&#233;es 90.&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;BBV : &lt;i&gt;Aviez-vous des contacts avec l'industrie ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;JPB : On avait des contacts avec CGE et on allait parfois &#224; Marcoussis voir M. Dumas de CGE. Mais on faisait de la recherche fondamentale. &lt;br class='autobr' /&gt;
Des contacts avec l'industrie, il y en avait sans doute au labo Collongues. Mais je n'&#233;tais pas au courant. Par contre, au laboratoire Collongues, Didier Goureyet &#233;tait plus proche des pr&#233;occupations industrielles, tout en &#233;tant en recherche fondamentale.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;BBV : &lt;i&gt;Avez-vous ressenti un certain pessimisme industriel sur l'alumine-b au cours de ces ann&#233;es ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;JPB : Non, il y eut une effervescence de 1970 &#224; 76. Le pessimisme est venu apr&#232;s. Il y avait peut &#234;tre des probl&#232;mes pour les gens qui ne travaillaient pas sur le sujet. C'est faux de dire qu'il y avait un pessimisme dans les ann&#233;es 70. Pour les ann&#233;es 80, c'est une autre histoire. Plus de probl&#232;me d'&#233;nergie, d'autres probl&#233;matiques sont arriv&#233;es : utiliser des syst&#232;mes. On savait que les batteries sodium-soufre ne seraient pas commerciales. Elles ne le seront peut-&#234;tre jamais. Donc du point de vue industriel, c'&#233;tait un tout petit peu moins motivant.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;BBV : &lt;i&gt;Avez-vous particip&#233; aux congr&#232;s internationaux des ann&#233;es 70-80 ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;JPB : Bien s&#251;r je pourrai vous donner la liste. C'est un autre aspect important : il y avait une comp&#233;tition internationale, essentiellement avec les Am&#233;ricains, avec les gens de General Electric - Roth - et les gens de Bell Telephon. J'ai commenc&#233; &#224; participer en 1976 Schenectady ; 1979 Lake Geneva (USA), Gatlinburg (Tennessee) en 1981, Grenoble en 1983, Lake Tahoe en 1985 ; Garmisch en 1987. Outre cette s&#233;rie des Solid State Ionics il y avait Rome (1976) et Saint-Andrews en Ecosse, en 1978. A chaque fois on avait des papiers dans ces conf&#233;rences.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;BBV : &lt;i&gt;Y-a-t-il eu une &#233;volution ou r&#233;orientation de vos recherches sur cette p&#233;riode ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;JPB : On a pousuivi les m&#234;mes pistes de recherche sur les deux alumines-b. &lt;br class='autobr' /&gt;
Philippe Colomban, chimiste, s'est consacr&#233; &#224; l'&#233;laboration des mono-cristaux d'alumine-b. Seuls deux groupes au niveau international savaient faire la synth&#232;se des alumines-b : Colomban au laboratoire Collongues et Farrington chez General Electric. C'&#233;tait un proc&#233;d&#233; &#224; haute temp&#233;rature avec quelques subtilit&#233;s chimiques pour parvenir &#224; faire l'alumine stoechiom&#233;trique. Mais il n'y eut pas de brevets sur les mono-cristaux. L'objectif &#233;tait purement fondamental car les applications se faisaient sur un milieu polycristallin, c&#233;ramique.&lt;br class='autobr' /&gt;
Parall&#232;lement &#224; partir de 1978, on a commenc&#233; &#224; travailler sur d'autres conducteurs ioniques qui pouvaient remplacer l'alumine. Ils faisaient partie d'une s&#233;rie qu'on appelait nasicons : c'&#233;taient des phosphates ou des phospho-silicates avec des ions sodium.&lt;br class='autobr' /&gt;
Le choix du sodium repose sur des arguments tr&#232;s simples : il faut un ion monovalent, de la bonne taille. S'il est trop gros il ne diffuse pas facilement ; s'il est trop petit (cas du proton ou du lithium) il vient se coller sur le r&#233;seau ; ou on a une interaction trop forte avec les anions (les chimistes disent trop polarisants). Les meilleurs ions sont Na+ et Ag+. Ensuite le choix d&#233;pend des applications. A cette &#233;poque l&#224; le probl&#232;me &#233;tait le stockage d'&#233;nergie, on visait des accumulateurs de haute puissance pour faire du stockage. Les crit&#232;res de densit&#233; d'&#233;nergie massique portaient le choix sur les &#233;l&#233;ments l&#233;gers, donc le sodium plut&#244;t que l'argent.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;BBV : &lt;i&gt;Est-ce que la crise d'&#233;nergie a infl&#233;chi les recherches au labo Collongues ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;JPB : Peut-&#234;tre mais &#224; cette &#233;poque j'&#233;tais trop concentr&#233; sur ma th&#232;se et je n'avais pas de vue d'ensemble. Pour revenir aux applications, les nasicons ont eu moins d'int&#233;r&#234;t car ils sont moins stables, ils r&#233;sistent moins bien au sodium liquide. Ils n'ont pas eu le succ&#232;s de l'alumine-b mais des gens travaillent encore dessus. Il y a eu beaucoup de travail sur cette famille : diversit&#233; de compositions et de phases. Elle pr&#233;sente un int&#233;r&#234;t pour la compr&#233;hension des param&#232;tres fondamentaux du solide mais moins que l'alumine-b.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;BBV : &lt;i&gt;R&#233;trospectivement consid&#233;rez vous que ce travail sur les nasicons a &#233;t&#233; positif ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;JPB : Oui on aurait peut-&#234;tre pu arr&#234;ter un peu plus t&#244;t. On a travaill&#233; l&#224; dessus de 1978 &#224; 1984 mais toujours en parall&#232;le avec l'alumine-b. C'est un travail qui se faisait &#224; Polytechnique o&#249; je suis venu en 1981. C'est un sujet qu'on a d&#233;velopp&#233; ici avec Colomban, toujours en liaison avec les physiciens du solide (Collin) d'Orsay dans le groupe de Robert Gom&#232;s qui avait pris la succession de Guinier.&lt;br class='autobr' /&gt;
Apr&#232;s on a pris un virage vers les sols-gels. La transition s'est faite par le biais des nasicons. On avait dans l'id&#233;e d'&#233;laborer des phases amorphes pour conducteurs ioniques. Elles &#233;taient d&#233;riv&#233;es du nasicon. On a pr&#233;par&#233; les premiers verres organo-min&#233;raux en s'inspirant des conducteurs ioniques type nasicons. Notre mod&#232;le &#224; nous &#233;tait le conducteur ionique. Puis on a eu des r&#233;sultats int&#233;ressants sur ces mat&#233;riaux, sans rapport avec la conduction ionique. Ces hybrides organo-min&#233;raux, &#224; la fronti&#232;re entre organique et min&#233;ral sont faits &#224; temp&#233;rature ambiante avec une chimie douce.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;BBV : &lt;i&gt;N'est-ce pas un paradoxe que de la chimie &#224; haute temp&#233;rature du labo Collongues sorti une chimie &#224; temp&#233;rature ambiante ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;JPB : Oui &#224; la m&#234;me &#233;poque Jacques Livage faisait des gels V205.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;BBV : &lt;i&gt;Qu'est-ce qui a motiv&#233; votre virage vers les verres ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;JPB : Du point de vue industriel, l'alumine-b c'&#233;tait moins motivant et, du point de vue fondamental, on avait fait le tour. De plus, je d&#233;marrais un groupe ici &#224; Polytechnique, c'&#233;tait le moment de passer &#224; un nouveau projet.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;BBV : &lt;i&gt;Est-ce que ce virage vers les verres organo-min&#233;raux a chang&#233; votre place dans la recherche ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;JPB : Au niveau du CNRS, non, car on appartient toujours &#224; la famille chimie du solide. Mais on a eu des contacts industriels nouveaux avec &lt;a href=&#034;http://www.saint-gobain.com/&#034; class=&#034;spip_out&#034; rel=&#034;external&#034;&gt;Saint-Gobain (Silor)&lt;/a&gt;. Bien s&#251;r pendant deux ans, on a eu un peu de ralentissement dans la production de publications. Mais le virage se fait bien.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;BBV : &lt;i&gt;Quelles sont les activit&#233;s de votre laboratoire actuellement ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;JPB : Actuellement on est toujours sur la chimie douce. En plus des hybrides organo-min&#233;raux, on travaille sur des objets nanom&#233;triques. On part de mol&#233;cules et on essaie de construire des solides &#224; partir de ces mol&#233;cules. Ce sont essentiellement des mat&#233;riaux pour l'optique : lasers ou stockage de l'information optique.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;BBV : &lt;i&gt;Quelles sont les techniques que vous utilisez ? Sont-elles totalement diff&#233;rentes de celles qu'on utilisait au laboratoire de Collongues ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;JPB : C'est de la chimie classique avec des b&#233;chers mais pas de haute temp&#233;rature. C'est bien diff&#233;rent des labos d'alumine o&#249; on avait des fours &#224; 2000&#176;C. Le labo Collongues &#233;tait surtout tourn&#233; vers l'&#233;laboration de mat&#233;riaux alors que maintenant on fait surtout de la caract&#233;risation. Comme maintenant on dispose de nombreuses techniques, on peut faire des th&#232;ses sur la caract&#233;risation avec peu de chimie.&lt;br class='autobr' /&gt;
Ce que m'a appris l'alumine-b c'est qu'il faut faire de la chimie. C'est le mat&#233;riau qui est int&#233;ressant. C'est le message le plus important. Toutes les avanc&#233;es qu'on a eues au laboratoire Collongues, c'est parce qu'on a su faire de la synth&#232;se de mat&#233;riaux avant et mieux que les autres. Notre premier travail est de faire de l'innovation en mat&#233;riaux, mais on a beaucoup de collaboration en physique.&lt;br class='autobr' /&gt;
Notre troisi&#232;me th&#232;me est la pile &#224; combustible. Il est arriv&#233; avec un ancien du laboratoire de Collongues : Philippe Barboux. Il travaillait sur les films minces de c&#233;ramique et pr&#233;pare maintenant des membranes conductrices ioniques pour les piles &#224; combustibles. C'est donc un retour &#224; la tradition d'origine.&lt;br class='autobr' /&gt;
Mais il y a un lien entre les verres, les particules nanom&#233;triques et les piles &#224; combustibles. Ce sont toujours des proc&#233;d&#233;s &#224; basse-temp&#233;rature. On travaille sur la diffusion de mol&#233;cules comme autrefois on travaillait sur la diffusion des ions.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;BBV : &lt;i&gt;Combien de personnes travaillent dans votre groupe ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;JPG : Actuellement notre groupe de chimie du solide comprend 10 personnes et il est l'une des composantes de l'UMR-CNRS intitul&#233;e Laboratoire de Physique de la mati&#232;re condens&#233;e qui comprend 50 personnes.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;BBV : &lt;i&gt;Quels sont vos liens avec l'&#233;tranger ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;JPB : Nous avons gard&#233; des relations avec &lt;a href=&#034;http://www.seas.ucla.edu/ms/faculty1/dunn.html&#034; class=&#034;spip_out&#034; rel=&#034;external&#034;&gt;Bruce Dunn&lt;/a&gt; de UCLA (nous avons ici un chercheur permanent qui a fait son post-doc l&#224; bas). Nous avons &#233;galement une collaboration avec un laboratoire allemand. Pas de programme europ&#233;en, c'est trop de paperasses.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;BBV : &lt;i&gt;Comment voyez-vous la chimie du solide fran&#231;aise sur la sc&#232;ne internationale ? Est-ce qu'elle n'a pas d'une certaine mani&#232;re fait obstacle &#224; l'essor d'une science des mat&#233;riaux en France ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;JPB : C'&#233;tait suite au d&#233;marrage de la physique du solide. Il y a avait a deux p&#244;les de chimie du solide en France, celle de Hagenmuller &#224; Bordeaux et celle de Collongues &#224; Paris. L'une plus mandarinale que l'autre. Des gens comme Rouxel, je les mets dans la famille Hagenmuller. En fait, si on prend les labos actuels de chimie du solide, ce sont tous des descendants d'Hagenmuller ou des descendants de Collongues.&lt;br class='autobr' /&gt;
Les deux &#233;coles sont tourn&#233;es vers la science fondamentale plus que vers les applications. C'est totalement diff&#233;rent de l'approche science des mat&#233;riaux aux USA. Elle n'existe pas en France. L'approche Materials Science est plus tourn&#233;e vers les applications. En France, il y a eu beaucoup de recherche fondamentale. L'originalit&#233; fran&#231;aise n'est pas dans la collaboration avec l'industrie mais dans l'approche physique, dans la collaboration entre chimistes et physiciens du solide. Je d&#233;fends l'approche fran&#231;aise. Si les gens avaient &#233;t&#233; tr&#232;s proches du milieu industriel, je ne crois pas qu'on aurait &#233;t&#233; aussi forts en chimie du solide.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;BBV : &lt;i&gt;Peut-on associer une coloration politique &#224; cette discipline ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;JPB : Traditionnellement en France, les physiciens sont plut&#244;t &#224; gauche et les chimistes plut&#244;t &#224; droite. Quant &#224; la couleur de ces deux &#233;coles de chimie du solide, je dirais que Hagenenmuller &#233;tait un gaulliste bon teint ; il serait plut&#244;t proche de Pasqua aujourd'hui ; Collongues, lui, &#233;tait plut&#244;t centre droite, bon vivant.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;i&gt;Fin de l'enregistrement&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;hr class=&#034;spip&#034; /&gt;
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&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href='https://www.sho.espci.fr/spip.php?page=sommaire'&gt;accueil du site&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
		&lt;div class='rss_ps'&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Pour citer l'entretien :&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&#171; Entretien avec Jean-Pierre Boilot &#187;, par Bernadette Bensaude-Vincent, 12 d&#233;cembre 2000 &lt;i&gt;Sciences : histoire orale&lt;/i&gt;, &lt;a href='https://www.sho.espci.fr/spip.php?article121' class=&#034;spip_in&#034;&gt;https://sho.spip.espci.fr/spip.php?article121&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&#8212; &lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Entretien avec Jean-Pierre Boilot, par Bernadette Bensaude-Vincent, 12 d&#233;cembre 2000&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Lieu : Ecole polytechnique, Palaiseau, France&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Support : non communiqu&#233;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href='https://www.sho.espci.fr/spip.php?article121' class=&#034;spip_in&#034;&gt;Transcription&lt;/a&gt; : &lt;a href='https://www.sho.espci.fr/spip.php?article7' class=&#034;spip_in&#034;&gt;Bernadette Bensaude-Vincent&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Edition en ligne : &lt;a href='https://www.sho.espci.fr/spip.php?article79' class=&#034;spip_in&#034;&gt;Sophie Jourdin&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
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	</item>
<item xml:lang="fr">
		<title>FRIEDEL Jacques, 2001-10-17</title>
		<link>https://www.sho.espci.fr/spip.php?article80</link>
		<guid isPermaLink="true">https://www.sho.espci.fr/spip.php?article80</guid>
		<dc:date>2011-09-19T08:25:40Z</dc:date>
		<dc:format>text/html</dc:format>
		<dc:language>fr</dc:language>
		<dc:creator>Sophie Jourdin</dc:creator>


		<dc:subject>solid state ionics</dc:subject>
		<dc:subject>Goodenough, John B.</dc:subject>
		<dc:subject>physique du solide</dc:subject>
		<dc:subject>chimie physique</dc:subject>

		<description>
&lt;p&gt;Jacques Friedel, born in Paris, February 11, 1921, entered the Ecole polytechnique (1944-46) then the Ecole nationale sup&#233;rieure des mines (1946-48). He thus followed up the family tradition starting with his great-grand father Charles Friedel, a famous organic chemist and crystallographer at Paris Sorbonne, his grand-father Georges Friedel best known for his work on liquid crystals, his father Edmond Friedel who was the director of the National School of Mines (1937-65). Jacques Friedel (&#8230;)&lt;/p&gt;


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 <content:encoded>&lt;div class='rss_chapo'&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;csfoo htmla&#034;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span class='spip_document_176 spip_documents spip_documents_right' style='float:right;'&gt;
&lt;img src='https://www.sho.espci.fr/sites/www.sho.espci.fr/IMG/jpg/Friedel-figure1-bio.jpg' width=&#034;400&#034; height=&#034;300&#034; alt=&#034;&#034; /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;csfoo htmlb&#034;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br class='autobr' /&gt;
&lt;strong&gt;Jacques Friedel&lt;/strong&gt;, born in Paris, February 11, 1921, entered the Ecole polytechnique (1944-46) then the Ecole nationale sup&#233;rieure des mines (1946-48). He thus followed up the family tradition starting with his great-grand father Charles Friedel, a famous organic chemist and crystallographer at Paris Sorbonne, his grand-father Georges Friedel best known for his work on liquid crystals, his father Edmond Friedel who was the director of the National School of Mines (1937-65). Jacques Friedel obtained a Licence &#232;s sciences degree at the University of Paris in 1948, then was initiated to physical metallurgy in the Metallurgy Laboratory of the School of Mines headed by C. Crussard. He spent three years at Bristol University (UK) in Nevill F. Mott's physics department. There he became acquainted with the electronic structure of metals and with dislocations, a topic developed by Charles Frank. In 1952 he got a PhD. from Bristol and a Doctorat d'Etat in Paris in 1954 on the electronic structure of impurities in metals.&lt;br class='autobr' /&gt;
In 1956, he became assistant professor at Paris University, then full professor of Solid State Physics at Paris Sud in Orsay from 1959 to 1989. For thirty years he developed a research school in solid state physics, authored a volume Les dislocations (Paris, Gauthier Villars, 1956, 2nd ed. Dislocations, Pergamon, 1964) and more than 200 journal articles. His original contributions dealt with various branches of solid state physics, in particular the electronic structure of metallic alloys and of metals, the structure of surfaces of dislocations and of clusters.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;csfoo htmla&#034;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span class='spip_document_177 spip_documents spip_documents_right' style='float:right;'&gt;
&lt;img src='https://www.sho.espci.fr/sites/www.sho.espci.fr/IMG/jpg/Friedel_institut-figure2-bio.jpg' width=&#034;400&#034; height=&#034;300&#034; alt=&#034;&#034; /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;csfoo htmlb&#034;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Jacques Friedel chaired the Consultative Committee to the French Government for scientific and technological research (1978-1980), was the President of the Soci&#233;t&#233; fran&#231;aise de physique and of the European Physical Society. Among many responsabilities in French scientific institutions, Jacques Friedel became the President of the French Academy of Sciences (1992-1994)&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;span class=&#034;csfoo htmla&#034;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;dl class='spip_document_178 spip_documents spip_documents_right' style='float:right;'&gt;
&lt;dt&gt;&lt;a href='https://www.sho.espci.fr/sites/www.sho.espci.fr/IMG/pdf/autorisation_de_diffusion-FRIEDEL.pdf' title='PDF - 354.6 kio' type=&#034;application/pdf&#034;&gt;&lt;img src='https://www.sho.espci.fr/plugins-dist/medias/prive/vignettes/pdf.svg?1736759167' width='64' height='64' alt='' /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/dt&gt;
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&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Pour citer l'entretien :&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&#171; Entretien avec Jacques Friedel &#187;, par Herv&#233; Arribart et Bernadette Bensaude-Vincent, 17 octobre 2001, &lt;i&gt;Sciences : histoire orale&lt;/i&gt;, &lt;a href='https://www.sho.espci.fr/spip.php?article80' class=&#034;spip_in&#034;&gt;https://sho.spip.espci.fr/spip.php?article80&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
		&lt;div class='rss_texte'&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;span class='spip_document_179 spip_documents spip_documents_center'&gt;
&lt;img src='https://www.sho.espci.fr/sites/www.sho.espci.fr/local/cache-vignettes/L400xH300/Friedel-figure3_entretien-40189.jpg?1737515911' width='400' height='300' alt=&#034;&#034; /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;JACQUES FRIEDEL (JF) : Je voudrais commencer par quelques remarques g&#233;n&#233;rales que m'inspire votre projet.&lt;br class='autobr' /&gt;
La premi&#232;re concerne la notion de mat&#233;riaux. Le terme et ce qu'il repr&#233;sente pour l'enseignement comme pour la recherche font partie d'une &#233;volution g&#233;n&#233;rale des universit&#233;s apr&#232;s la Deuxi&#232;me Guerre mondiale. Il faut se rappeler, en effet, que jusqu'&#224; cette &#233;poque et au del&#224;, les d&#233;partements universitaires &#233;taient d&#233;finis par grands secteurs - math&#233;matiques, physique, chimie, biologie, g&#233;ologie, astronomie - &#224; l'int&#233;rieur desquels les &#171; chaires &#187; professorales de sp&#233;cialit&#233; &#233;taient d&#233;finies, en physique du moins, par la nature de l'instrumentation employ&#233;e : cristallographie (c'est-&#224;-dire rayons X), acoustique, optique, thermodynamique, etc. En chimie, par contre, l'opposition entre min&#233;rale et organique &#233;tait transcend&#233;e par le d&#233;veloppement plus r&#233;cent de la chimie physique qui, avant guerre, avait tendance &#224; couvrir le futur domaine des mat&#233;riaux. Ces subdivisions existaient aussi dans les organismes de recherche comme le CNRS. Le d&#233;veloppement des applications pratiques de la physique nucl&#233;aire comme des grands laboratoires de recherche industriels (Philips, GECO, Bell, IBM) avaient fait &#233;clater ces divisions et montr&#233; la n&#233;cessit&#233; de repenser l'organisation de la recherche comme de l'enseignement.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;span class='spip_document_180 spip_documents spip_documents_center'&gt;
&lt;img src='https://www.sho.espci.fr/sites/www.sho.espci.fr/local/cache-vignettes/L400xH300/Friedel-figure4-entretien-cd065.jpg?1737515911' width='400' height='300' alt=&#034;&#034; /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;C'est dans ce contexte lors d'une r&#233;union de l'American Physical Society que Roman Smoluchowski a le premier, je crois, propos&#233; le d&#233;veloppement d'instituts de recherche et la cr&#233;ation d'une soci&#233;t&#233; (am&#233;ricaine) centr&#233;e sur l'&#233;tude des mat&#233;riaux. Elle devait regrouper chimistes, physiciens, m&#233;caniciens et aussi cristallographes et m&#233;tallurgistes alors dispers&#233;s dans diverses soci&#233;t&#233;s.&lt;br class='autobr' /&gt;
Cette proposition avait une r&#233;sonance &#233;vidente dans les grands laboratoires appliqu&#233;s, relevant soit de l'industrie soit d'organismes d'Etat. Mais elle &#233;tait trop extr&#234;me pour la recherche universitaire. Celle-ci avait commenc&#233; &#224; se r&#233;organiser &#224; l'int&#233;rieur de la physique comme de la chimie, en d&#233;partements distincts mais sp&#233;cialis&#233;s autour des particules et des noyaux, des atomes et des mol&#233;cules, et finalement des solides. Pour ces derniers Bristol, avec N.F. Mott et bien d'autres, a &#233;t&#233; un premier noyau conscient et organis&#233;, d&#232;s avant la guerre. Mais la personnalit&#233; de F. Seitz, auteur du premier livre sur la physique de l'&#233;tat solide, a jou&#233; un grand r&#244;le, avec la cr&#233;ation au d&#233;but des ann&#233;es 50 de son d&#233;partement de physique &#224; Urbana (Illinois). De la m&#234;me &#233;poque, datent l'Institut de physique des solides de Tokyo et le groupe de physique des solides de Pierre Aigrain &#224; l'Ecole normale sup&#233;rieure (Paris). Notre laboratoire de physique des solides a &#233;t&#233; fond&#233; &#224; Orsay en 1959. Le Max Planck de Stuttgart (Physique et chimie des solides) et le laboratoire correspondant du centre nucl&#233;aire de J&#252;lich (Allemagne) datent des ann&#233;es 1960. Enfin, en France, le d&#233;veloppement des 3&#176; cycles universitaires &#224; partir de 1955 s'est fait en physique et (sauf pour la cristallographie) suivant le m&#234;me d&#233;coupage. Peu apr&#232;s, le CNRS suivait la m&#234;me voie pour r&#233;organiser ses commissions avec une section &#171; physique des solides &#187; rempla&#231;ant, &#224; ma suggestion, l'&#233;lectronique, la thermodynamique et l'optique des solides. Toutes ces r&#233;formes confortaient le d&#233;coupage des universit&#233;s comme des organismes type CNRS ou Max Planck en domaines disciplinaires de physique, chimie, m&#233;canique etc. Ce grand d&#233;coupage sera maintenu dans la r&#233;forme Fouchet de l'universit&#233; fran&#231;aise en 1968. Elle supprimait en physique quelques vieilles chaires remplac&#233;es par des enseignements plus modernes, vus d'un point de vue plus g&#233;n&#233;ral. Cette &#233;volution s'est poursuivie dans les ann&#233;es 70 avec le passage vers 1975 de physique des solides &#224; physique de la mati&#232;re condens&#233;e. En Europe, ceci a permis de regrouper dans une m&#234;me division de European Physical Society les gens des solides et les gens des liquides - sans oublier les cristaux liquides et les polym&#232;res remis &#224; l'honneur par Pierre-Gilles de Gennes et d'autres. En France, le changement de d&#233;nomination a permis aussi aux cristallographes de rentrer dans le rang au CNRS, par la cr&#233;ation de deux sections de mati&#232;re condens&#233;e, au prix d'une s&#233;paration regrettable entre aspects atomiques et aspects &#233;lectroniques. &lt;br class='autobr' /&gt;
C'est donc dans ce contexte g&#233;n&#233;ral qu'il faut juger le d&#233;veloppement du concept de mat&#233;riaux. Aux USA, la cr&#233;ation au milieu des ann&#233;es 60 d'instituts universitaires des mat&#233;riaux - dont seuls certains ont surv&#233;cu - a &#233;t&#233; pr&#233;sent&#233;e et jug&#233;e comme une tentative d'introduire l'interdisciplinarit&#233; dans un milieu encore domin&#233; par le d&#233;coupage en d&#233;partements de grandes disciplines et par l'individualisme des enseignants, souvent encore instables et toujours d&#233;pendants de contrats personnels de recherche. &lt;br class='autobr' /&gt;
En France, les mat&#233;riaux ont &#233;merg&#233; officiellement en 1970-71. J'&#233;tais alors le premier pr&#233;sident physicien (et non chimiste) d'une Action Concert&#233;e en M&#233;tallurgie de la DGRST (D&#233;l&#233;gation g&#233;n&#233;rale &#224; la recherche scientifique et technologique, pr&#233;curseur du minist&#232;re de la recherche). Cette action, comme bien d'autres en &#233;lectronique, par exemple, avait pour but de favoriser l'octroi de contrats de 3 ans, des travaux en commun de laboratoires diff&#233;rents, appartenant si possible &#224; l'universit&#233; et &#224; l'industrie. Sous la pouss&#233;e du vent de r&#233;formes post-1968, la commission de cette Action concert&#233;e a b&#226;ti un programme d'enseignement des mat&#233;riaux, anim&#233; par mon cousin et premier patron Crussard, alors de retour d'un voyage aux Etats Unis et membre de la Commission. Ce programme, qui accordait une place pr&#233;pond&#233;rante aux mat&#233;riaux de structure, a &#233;t&#233; imm&#233;diatement adopt&#233; par les &#233;coles d'ing&#233;nieurs impliqu&#233;es dans ce domaine (m&#233;tallurgie, plastiques, c&#233;ramiques). Il y a eu aussi la cr&#233;ation de DEA universitaires en mat&#233;riaux en province comme &#224; Paris. Le rapprochement entre physiciens et chimistes, comme les d&#233;bouch&#233;s industriels ont &#233;t&#233; jug&#233;s positifs. Les cristallographes y ont souvent vu une mani&#232;re de s'&#233;panouir, de former des gens qui iraient plus facilement dans l'industrie. En se s&#233;parant en 1971, cette Action Concert&#233;e de M&#233;tallurgie a laiss&#233; un rapport &#233;mettant le v&#339;u qu'une Action Concert&#233;e Mat&#233;riaux pour la recherche lui succ&#232;de, en sugg&#233;rant un premier programme. Sous la direction de Pierre Aigrain, ce projet a &#233;t&#233; accept&#233; par la DGRST. Le CNRS a suivi tr&#232;s rapidement en cr&#233;ant les premiers programmes de recherche intersectoriels, destin&#233;s &#224; jeter des ponts entre les d&#233;partements. Celui des mat&#233;riaux, l'un des plus importants et des plus stables, a longtemps &#233;t&#233; dirig&#233; par Jean Hanus.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;span class='spip_document_181 spip_documents spip_documents_center'&gt;
&lt;img src='https://www.sho.espci.fr/sites/www.sho.espci.fr/local/cache-vignettes/L400xH300/Friedel-figure5-entretien-1016c.jpg?1737515911' width='400' height='300' alt=&#034;&#034; /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Ce d&#233;marrage des mat&#233;riaux reste relativement modeste. En France, comme aux USA, il concerne surtout l'enseignement des &#233;coles d'ing&#233;nieurs et de certains DEA. Il se r&#233;duit bien souvent &#224; une alliance entre m&#233;tallurgistes et physicochimistes dans une perspective d'ing&#233;nieurs. L'&#233;lectronique reste au d&#233;part en dehors du mouvement.&lt;br class='autobr' /&gt;
Je pense que l'importance qu'ont prise graduellement les mat&#233;riaux est venue principalement de ce que c'&#233;tait un terme commode pour couvrir une large gamme de recherches &#224; la fois interdisciplinaires et d&#233;bouchant sur des applications pratiques, dont on pouvait affirmer l'importance pour la soci&#233;t&#233; et garantir d'un mot le secteur dans les plans et les budgets. C'est incontestablement ce qui s'est produit en France comme &#224; Bruxelles (si&#232;ge de l'Union europ&#233;enne) dans les ann&#233;es 1980. La situation a d&#251; &#234;tre similaire aux USA. Cela explique le ralliement des gens de l'&#233;lectronique et des semiconducteurs &#224; cette &#233;poque.&lt;br class='autobr' /&gt;
Ensuite le mouvement s'est affermi avec la cr&#233;ation de la Materials Research Society (1973) dont la branche europ&#233;enne, anim&#233;e par des physiciens nucl&#233;aires de Strasbourg, s'est d&#233;velopp&#233;e nettement plus tard. La r&#233;ponse des soci&#233;t&#233;s de m&#233;tallurgie en Europe a &#233;t&#233; de se transformer en soci&#233;t&#233;s de mat&#233;riaux et de se f&#233;d&#233;rer &#224; l'instigation des Britanniques, pour faire front &#224; l'impulsion venue des USA. M&#234;me dans la Materials Research Society, on peut noter que des r&#233;unions plus &#171; &#233;lectroniques &#187; alternent avec des r&#233;unions plus &#171; atomiques &#187; !&lt;br class='autobr' /&gt;
Pour moi, la conclusion est claire : si un minimum de connaissances communes est n&#233;cessaire pour tous les gens actifs dans les mat&#233;riaux, et s'il est utile qu'ils fassent front commun pour d&#233;fendre ce secteur, il est moins facile de g&#233;rer au jour le jour des recherches en commun et il faut tenir compte d'autres forces et d'autres n&#233;cessit&#233;s, dans l'enseignement universitaire notamment. De ce fait je ne pense pas que la notion de mat&#233;riaux ait le m&#234;me sens actuellement en France et aux USA.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Deuxi&#232;me remarque, l'interdisciplinarit&#233;, souvent pr&#233;sent&#233;e comme caract&#233;ristique de la recherche en mat&#233;riaux, s'est pratiqu&#233;e bien avant le d&#233;veloppement de ce terme. Ainsi la Soci&#233;t&#233; fran&#231;aise de m&#233;tallurgie avait, juste apr&#232;s la deuxi&#232;me guerre, un groupe de physique du m&#233;tal, pr&#233;sid&#233; par Andr&#233; Guinier et qui r&#233;unissait dans des discussions et des colloques tout le gratin d'alors : industriels, gens des organismes, des &#233;coles, des universit&#233;s, mais aussi des physiciens, des chimistes, des m&#233;caniciens, des cristallographes. Pendant dix ans, entre le milieu des ann&#233;es 60 et 70, la m&#234;me Soci&#233;t&#233; de m&#233;tallurgie a copatronn&#233; avec le CEA (Commissariat &#224; l'&#233;nergie atomique) et l'IRSID (Institut de recherche sid&#233;rurgique), des &#233;coles d'&#233;t&#233; annuelles fort suivies. Ces &#233;coles d'&#233;t&#233; men&#233;es par Y. Adda (CEA), Yves Qu&#233;r&#233; (CEA, puis Ecole polytechnique), et J. Philibert (IRSID puis Orsay) r&#233;unissaient de jeunes chercheurs et des gens confirm&#233;s des universit&#233;s, des organismes et de l'industrie. Elles couvraient des th&#232;mes g&#233;n&#233;raux qui seraient maintenant jug&#233;s mat&#233;riaux. A partir de 1969 des groupes dits de Monestier (l'endroit o&#249; s'est tenue l'&#233;cole cet &#233;t&#233; l&#224;) ont fait p&#233;riodiquement le point sur l'&#233;tat des recherches dans une dizaine de domaines sp&#233;cialis&#233;s (d&#233;fauts ponctuels, plasticit&#233;, surfaces, etc.). Ces r&#233;unions r&#233;guli&#232;res sont maintenant oubli&#233;es car elles ont &#233;t&#233; publi&#233;es chacune s&#233;par&#233;ment, en fran&#231;ais, par un &#233;diteur diff&#233;rent. Ce qui fait qu'elles n'apparaissent pas comme une s&#233;rie homog&#232;ne.&lt;br class='autobr' /&gt;
L'interdisciplinarit&#233; a &#233;t&#233; aussi renforc&#233;e par les Actions Th&#233;matiques Programm&#233;es (ATP) du CNRS, assez similaires aux Actions concert&#233;es d&#233;crites plus haut mais dans des domaines plus pointus et variables. J'ai moi-m&#234;me suscit&#233; et pr&#233;sid&#233; des ATP sur les surfaces et sur les agr&#233;gats, qui ont fortement d&#233;velopp&#233; l'interdisciplinarit&#233; de ces domaines en France. &lt;br class='autobr' /&gt;
Un dernier aspect de l'interdisciplinarit&#233; est la n&#233;cessit&#233; de collaboration entre chimistes et physiciens pour produire des mat&#233;riaux et en &#233;tudier les propri&#233;t&#233;s physiques. Dans certains cas, et sans parler de l'approche &#171; mat&#233;riaux &#187;, ceci a &#233;t&#233; fait sur place, dans le m&#234;me (grand) laboratoire. Ce fut le cas (peut-&#234;tre pas si souvent) dans les deux grands instituts de Stuttgart et de J&#252;lich par exemple. A Orsay, notre laboratoire de physique des solides a cherch&#233; &#224; r&#233;soudre partiellement le probl&#232;me en implantant de petites &#233;quipes de chimistes d'abord dans la production d'alliages m&#233;talliques, puis de cristaux liquides, enfin de compos&#233;s organiques conducteurs. Si ces groupes ont &#233;t&#233; tr&#232;s utiles, il a &#233;t&#233; parfois difficile de d&#233;fendre leurs membres avec succ&#232;s dans leur commission CNRS respective. Les grands laboratoires de chimie des solides fran&#231;ais ont aussi acquis une comp&#233;tence utile dans certaines techniques physiques. &lt;br class='autobr' /&gt;
Une solution tr&#232;s diff&#233;rente et, je pense, de plus d'avenir, est une collaboration entre deux groupes, l'un physicien, l'autre chimiste, sur le d&#233;veloppement et l'&#233;tude de mat&#233;riaux nouveaux. C'est de cette fa&#231;on que Jean Rouxel (Nantes) et Monceau (Grenoble) ont d&#233;couvert le courant de Fr&#246;lich des ondes de densit&#233; de charge, que Beckgaard (Copenhague) et J&#233;r&#244;me (Orsay) ont d&#233;couvert la supraconductivit&#233; organique (&#224; la suite des travaux d'une ATP sur les conducteurs organiques), etc. &lt;br class='autobr' /&gt;
Donc pour r&#233;sumer, avec la cr&#233;ation des DEA, des &#233;coles d'&#233;t&#233;, les ATP les enseignements et la recherche en mat&#233;riaux ont &#233;t&#233; d&#233;velopp&#233;s en France et assez actifs. Mais ce mouvement est assez difficile &#224; saisir car l'ensemble ne s'appelait pas science des mat&#233;riaux comme aux Etats Unis.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Troisi&#232;me remarque : comme les mat&#233;riaux sont un peu une cr&#233;ation am&#233;ricaine, une dynamique am&#233;ricaine, il faudrait &#233;viter de r&#233;&#233;diter les probl&#232;mes pos&#233;s par la r&#233;duction de l'histoire de la physique du solide jusqu'aux ann&#233;es 50. Le groupe de sp&#233;cialistes qui avait initialement travaill&#233; &#224; ce projet - principalement anglosaxons et quelques allemands- ont fait une sorte d'hymne un peu excessif &#224; John Bardeen, passant sous silence la plupart des contributions europ&#233;ennes notamment entre les deux guerres. Dans un deuxi&#232;me temps, d'autres personnes ont &#233;t&#233; consult&#233;es. Alors trop occup&#233; et voyant l'ampleur de la t&#226;che, j'ai refil&#233; la demande qui m'&#233;tait faite &#224; Guinier qui a pu r&#233;tablir un minimum de corrections, sur la conduction &#233;lectrique des m&#233;taux (Linde) ou le magn&#233;tisme (N&#233;el), par exemple. Mais le r&#233;sultat final reste biais&#233; et j'ai &#233;t&#233; frapp&#233; r&#233;cemment de voir citer cet ouvrage comme une r&#233;f&#233;rence irr&#233;futable. Votre projet aussi est initialement am&#233;ricain et internet est surtout implant&#233; en Am&#233;rique. Vous avez donc un biais dont il faudra vous d&#233;gager.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;BERNADETTE BENSAUDE-VINCENT (BBV) : &lt;i&gt;Pourriez vous pr&#233;ciser ce qu'il en est de l'essor de la recherche en mat&#233;riaux en France ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;JF : Comme je vous l'ai expliqu&#233;, il m'est difficile de vous r&#233;pondre clairement. Qu'est-ce qui appartient aux recherches mat&#233;riaux, aux phases condens&#233;es, aux solides ? Si on prend l'ensemble, il est consid&#233;rable et je pense comparable en valeur et en quantit&#233; par chercheur &#224; ce qui se fait dans les autres pays d&#233;velopp&#233;s.&lt;br class='autobr' /&gt;
Si vous prenez le sens restreint d'une recherche dans un institut analogue aux instituts de recherche en mat&#233;riaux am&#233;ricains, je vous r&#233;pondrai que cela d&#233;bute bien avant le mot mat&#233;riaux dans quelques laboratoires industriels comme Saint Gobain, P&#233;chiney, Thomson CSF, CGE Alcatel comme dans les organismes de recherche appliqu&#233;e, en particulier &#224; l'ONERA (Office national en recherches a&#233;ronautiques) et au CEA (Commissariat &#224; l'&#233;nergie atomique). Le CEA a eu, d&#232;s le d&#233;part, des sections de recherche fondamentale mais aussi beaucoup d'activit&#233;s science des mat&#233;riaux, o&#249; il fallait fabriquer quelque chose pour quelque chose de pr&#233;cis dans un but donn&#233;. De m&#234;me &#224; un moindre niveau, l'IRSID pour la sid&#233;rurgie, l'ONERA pour l'aviation et l'Ecole des mines de Paris dans son centre de Corbeil puis de Sophia Antipolis, ont d&#233;velopp&#233; assez t&#244;t une approche g&#233;nie des mat&#233;riaux, reprise par l'universit&#233; de Compi&#232;gne.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;BBV : &lt;i&gt;Pourquoi la science des mat&#233;riaux s'est-elle mieux d&#233;velopp&#233;e en Grande Bretagne ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;JF : S'est-elle vraiment mieux d&#233;velopp&#233;e l&#224; bas qu'en France ? Je n'en suis pas convaincu.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;BBV : &lt;i&gt;Oui si l'on en croit Robert Cahn.&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;JF : Je connais Robert Cahn depuis 1948. C'est un m&#233;tallurgiste tr&#232;s distingu&#233;, qui a fait des travaux remarqu&#233;s d&#232;s sa jeunesse sur la polygonisation des m&#233;taux &#233;crouis. Ses fonctions d'&#233;diteur l'ont amen&#233; au contact d'&#233;norm&#233;ment de choses. Mais il a quand m&#234;me des limites, comme tout le monde.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;HERVE ARRIBART (HA) : &lt;i&gt;Il se pose comme un fondateur de la science des mat&#233;riaux.&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;JF : Robert Cahn a certainement contribu&#233; &#224; d&#233;velopper une image positive et vivante de la recherche en mat&#233;riaux. Ceci dit, il faut tenir compte de deux effets d'optique : les mat&#233;riaux dont il parle dans son livre sont surtout les mat&#233;riaux de structure. Il y a fort peu de choses sur les semiconducteurs et encore moins sur les supraconducteurs, assez peu aussi sur le magn&#233;tisme. On reconna&#238;t l&#224; la dichotomie atomes/&#233;lectrons qu'il est d'ailleurs difficile de ma&#238;triser dans un domaine aussi &#233;tendu.&lt;br class='autobr' /&gt;
Robert Cahn est maintenant connu par les livres qu'il a &#233;dit&#233;s sur les mat&#233;riaux. Les auteurs qu'il a sollicit&#233;s sont loin d'&#234;tre tous britanniques. En fait, il a, comme je l'ai dit, des contacts depuis longtemps avec la France (o&#249; il a &#233;t&#233; professeur &#224; Orsay trois ans en m&#233;tallurgie) comme avec les USA et bien d'autres pays. Ses livres refl&#232;tent donc la pluralit&#233; des pays actifs dans ce domaine avec un biais bien compr&#233;hensible pour la Grande Bretagne.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;HA : &lt;i&gt;Et connaissez vous John Goodenough ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;JF : Depuis moins longtemps que Robert Cahn mais je l'ai pas mal vu lors de ses s&#233;jours &#224; Bordeaux puis &#224; Oxford. Je pense que c'est un chimiste de grande valeur, qui a des id&#233;es th&#233;oriques int&#233;ressantes tout en produisant des mat&#233;riaux nouveaux.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;HA : &lt;i&gt;Pourquoi avez vous choisi d'aller &#224; l'Universit&#233; de Bristol ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;JF : J'explique cela dans mon discours &#224; la Materials Research Society pour le von Hippel Award en 1988. Je d&#233;veloppe aussi ce point dans Graine de mandarin (Odile Jacob, 1995).&lt;br class='autobr' /&gt;
J'ai commenc&#233; une recherche exp&#233;rimentale chez C. Crussard au laboratoire de M&#233;tallurgie de l'Ecole des mines de Paris, en 1948. Apr&#232;s quelques t&#226;tonnements o&#249; je me suis familiaris&#233; avec les instruments, presque tous con&#231;us par Chevenard d'Imply, Crussard m'a donn&#233; une petite plaquette d'aluminium recristallis&#233; dont les grains avaient des joints perpendiculaires &#224; la plaquette. J'ai mesur&#233; la variation de l'&#233;nergie de joints en fonction des d&#233;sorientations entre grains et j'ai voulu comparer avec des calculs. A part le cas des faibles d&#233;sorientations, o&#249; on se ram&#232;ne &#224; un probl&#232;me de dislocations, rien n'existait alors dans les livres de physique des solides. Seul Seitz consid&#233;rait l'&#233;nergie d'un cristal parfait de m&#233;tal alcalin. Mais rien n'existait sur les &#233;nergies de changement de phase ou sur les &#233;nergies de d&#233;fauts. Je ne pouvais pas progresser dans ce domaine sans avoir compris un peu mieux les &#233;lectrons dans les m&#233;taux, responsables de leur coh&#233;sion. &lt;br class='autobr' /&gt;
Crussard me pr&#233;senta alors &#224; son ami Nevill Mott, physicien du solide &#224; Bristol lors d'un de ses nombreux voyages sur le continent. J'&#233;tais pay&#233; par le Corps des Mines pour faire de la recherche (par le d&#233;cret Suquet de 1939, applicable &#224; 10% des corps techniques de l'Etat). J'ai ainsi pass&#233; trois ans &#224; Bristol &#224; apprendre la physique et &#224; faire un Ph D. Bristol &#233;tait connue, outre les travaux sur les rayons cosmiques autour du futur prix Nobel Powell, pour les travaux sur la structure &#233;lectronique des solides (N. Mott) et les dislocations (F. Charles Franck). Mott m'a mis sur un probl&#232;me fondamental , celui des impuret&#233;s. Quand on change la nature d'un atome de m&#233;tal, qu'on ajoute ou retire un atome de ce cristal, comment les &#233;lectrons r&#233;agissent-ils ? J'ai &#233;t&#233; le premier &#224; &#233;tudier les franges de diffraction ainsi produites autour de l'impuret&#233;, d'abord num&#233;riquement (&#224; la r&#232;gle &#224; calcul) dans des &#233;tudes autocoh&#233;rentes puis par des th&#233;or&#232;mes g&#233;n&#233;raux simples que j'ai ainsi d&#233;couverts. Dans un second temps, revenu &#224; Paris, j'ai compris avec A. Blandin, un de mes premiers th&#233;sards, que quand les effets de diffusion par les atomes &#233;taient faibles comme dans l'aluminium, les forces interatomiques &#233;taient additives &#224; volume constant et pouvaient se d&#233;duire simplement de la diffusion des &#233;lectrons par chaque atome pris isol&#233;ment. Le d&#233;tour par Bristol m'a ainsi permis de comprendre la nature des forces interatomiques dans les m&#233;taux comme l'aluminium et donc de calculer l'&#233;nergie des joints de grains.&lt;br class='autobr' /&gt;
Avec F.C. Franck j'ai appris les dislocations, un domaine alors en grande expansion. De retour en France en 1852 j'ai continu&#233; sur les deux sujets. J'ai d'abord pass&#233; une th&#232;se fran&#231;aise, pour pouvoir &#233;ventuellement entrer &#224; l'Universit&#233;. Je ne voulais pas r&#233;it&#233;rer les ennuis de mon grand p&#232;re, directeur de l'Institut de cristallographie &#224; Strasbourg apr&#232;s avoir dirig&#233; l'Ecole des Mines de Saint-Etienne, mais barr&#233; de la Facult&#233; des sciences parce qu'il n'avait jamais pass&#233; sa licence ! En 1956, je suis finalement entr&#233; &#224; la Sorbonne et en 1959 Andr&#233; Guinier, R. Castaing et moi avons emm&#233;nag&#233; &#224; Orsay. Pierre Gilles De Gennes nous a rejoints en 1961 et nous avons &#233;t&#233; un des premiers laboratoires associ&#233;s au CNRS (le N&#176;2) d&#233;pendant de plusieurs commissions.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;HA : &lt;i&gt;Quand vous avez eu un laboratoire &#224; Orsay avez vous accueilli des chercheurs de Bristol ou d'Angleterre ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;JF : Nous avons assez vite recrut&#233; au CNRS un Ecossais, J. Campbell qui avait fait une th&#232;se exp&#233;rimentale avec N. Kurti &#224; Oxford dans les techniques nucl&#233;aires &#224; basses temp&#233;ratures. Nous avons aussi recrut&#233; C. Froidevaux, un Suisse issu du Polytechnicum de Zurich, sp&#233;cialis&#233; en techniques de r&#233;sonance &#224; Berkeley apr&#232;s avoir lui aussi fait une th&#232;se chez Kurti &#224; Oxford. &lt;br class='autobr' /&gt;
Mais c'est au niveau des &#233;changes temporaires que nous avons eu le plus de contacts avec l'&#233;tranger, dans les deux sens et la plupart avec des pays industriels. Des th&#233;sards &#233;trangers sont venus quand nos groupes th&#233;oriques et exp&#233;rimentaux ont pris de l'ampleur. Dans la vingtaine de mes propres &#233;l&#232;ves j'ai eu ainsi un Polonais, un Chilien, un Libanais, un Croate, un Allemand. Ce dernier H. Schulz, sans doute le plus brillant et le dernier de mes th&#233;sards, est malheureusement d&#233;c&#233;d&#233; r&#233;cemment.&lt;br class='autobr' /&gt;
Avec l'Angleterre, j'avais des relations privil&#233;gi&#233;es avec N. Mott, devenu mon beau-fr&#232;re, chez qui j'ai pass&#233; en famille de nombreux &#233;t&#233;s, surtout &#224; Cambridge. Par lui j'ai d&#233;velopp&#233; des contacts avec P.B. Hirsch, S. Zimian, V. Heine. J'ai maintenu de fr&#233;quents contacts avec F.C. Franck &#224; Bristol. F.R.N. Nabarro et R.W. Cahn ont &#233;t&#233; aussi visiteurs &#224; Orsay.&lt;br class='autobr' /&gt;
A Bristol, o&#249; il y avait peu de th&#233;sards britanniques &#224; l'&#233;poque, j'ai &#233;tabli autant de liens avec les visiteurs &#233;trangers, notamment des sp&#233;cialistes allemands des d&#233;fauts cristallins comme A. Serger, G. Leibfried, D. Kuhlmann-Wilsdorf. Enfin j'ai eu tr&#232;s t&#244;t des contacts avec nombre d'Am&#233;ricains, dont C. Kittel, H. Brooks, W. Kohn, N. Bloemberger ont le plus compt&#233; pour mon d&#233;but de carri&#232;re.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;HA : &lt;i&gt;Pour autant que je m'en souvienne il n'y avait pas beaucoup d'&#233;tudiants &#233;trangers dans le DEA de physique du solide &#224; Orsay, du moins l'ann&#233;e o&#249; j'y &#233;tais ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;JF : En effet on en a eu que quelques uns par an, surtout d'Europe de l'Est et des pays m&#233;diterran&#233;ens, parsem&#233;s de quelques Allemands, Hollandais, Chinois et une ann&#233;e deux Am&#233;ricains du Nord. Il n'y avait pas d'Anglais. Le DEA qu'on a cr&#233;&#233; &#224; Orsay avec Guinier et Castaing en 1959 ne s'int&#233;grait pas dans le cadre de formation des th&#232;ses anglaises. Leurs th&#232;ses se faisaient beaucoup plus vite en trois ans au maximum apr&#232;s une licence en 3 ans. Donc c'est apr&#232;s leur th&#232;se que les Anglais venaient et nous nous envoyions nos propres &#233;tudiants en post-docs &#224; l'&#233;tranger. Cette formule d'&#233;changes de post-docs me semble de toutes fa&#231;ons meilleure. Il faut dire aussi que le DEA de physique des solides couvrait toute la r&#233;gion parisienne et que notre laboratoire recrutait (et recrute) aussi sur d'autres DEA de la r&#233;gion parisienne ou de province.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;BBV : &lt;i&gt;Votre enseignement de DEA &#233;tait-il exp&#233;rimental ou th&#233;orique ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;JF : Apr&#232;s un d&#233;marrage officieux en 1955 &#224; Paris avec l'aide de Roman Schmolukovski nous avons eu longtemps trois cours de base, essentiellement th&#233;oriques : cristallographie, ph&#233;nom&#232;nes de transport, structure g&#233;n&#233;rale des solides, assur&#233;s au d&#233;part par Guinier, Aigrain et moi-m&#234;me. Seul Guinier avait des travaux pratiques. A partir de 1961, De Gennes a fait un cours de physique quantique. Par la suite nous avons demand&#233; aux &#233;tudiants de faire un court stage dans un laboratoire et de r&#233;diger et soutenir un m&#233;moire &#224; l'issue du stage. Mais nous n'&#233;tions pas un DEA classique, la plupart des DEA ayant la moiti&#233; de leur temps en laboratoire. D&#232;s le d&#233;but nous avons aussi d&#233;velopp&#233; des cours compl&#233;mentaires de deuxi&#232;me ann&#233;e beaucoup plus sp&#233;cialis&#233;s et variant d'une ann&#233;e &#224; l'autre. C'est ainsi que sont n&#233;s de nombreux ouvrages comme les premiers livres de De Gennes mais aussi des introductions par diff&#233;rents auteurs aux d&#233;fauts ponctuels, &#224; la m&#233;canique &#233;lectronique, aux ondes de spin, &#224; la supraconductivit&#233;, le cours de G. Toulouse sur les statistiques en dimensions fractionnaires, le livre de M. Kl&#233;man Points, lignes, parois et bien d'autres.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;BBV : &lt;i&gt;Avez vous d&#233;velopp&#233; des liens avec les chimistes d'Orsay ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;JF : J'avais au d&#233;part des liens avec P. Lacombe qui dataient de l'Ecole des Mines. Je connaissais Chaudron et ses &#233;l&#232;ves, notamment Collongues et surtout Revcholevski qui collabore depuis longtemps avec J&#233;r&#244;me sur les supraconducteurs. Je connaissais beaucoup de gens &#224; Vitry, particuli&#232;rement D. Gratias, dont j'ai suivi le d&#233;marrage pour sa th&#232;se sur les structures incommensurables de surfaces et surtout sa d&#233;couverte des quasicristaux. Les chimistes avaient au d&#233;part, en France, une plus longue tradition de th&#233;orie quantique et j'ai eu des contacts fructueux dans les ann&#233;es 60 avec plusieurs chimistes de mon &#226;ge &#224; Orsay. Il en a &#233;t&#233; de m&#234;me avec la chimie physique, initialement brillante &#224; Orsay dans des domaines originaux comme les cristaux plastiques ou la tenue aux irradiations des mol&#233;cules organiques, deux domaines dispers&#233;s par la mort ou le d&#233;m&#233;nagement des acteurs, &#224; part la r&#233;action photographique de Mme Belloni. Quant &#224; Henri Kagan dont on parle beaucoup ces jours-ci, je l'ai surtout connu et appr&#233;ci&#233; au Conseil de Troisi&#232;me Cycle &#224; Orsay quand je le pr&#233;sidais.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;BBV : &lt;i&gt;Et des liens avec les industriels ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;JF : Soyons clair : je suis un modeste th&#233;oricien des solides, pas un grand manitou des mat&#233;riaux. Ceci dit, au laboratoire de m&#233;tallurgie de Crussard j'ai eu l'occasion de rencontrer des m&#233;tallurgistes industriels comme Herenguel et surtout Chevenard. Au retour de Bristol, j'ai fait syst&#233;matiquement le tour des laboratoires industriels ; P&#233;chiney &#224; Chamb&#233;ry a m&#234;me cru que je venais espionner ! C'est l'&#233;poque o&#249; j'ai fait deux exp&#233;riences extr&#234;mes. Un sid&#233;rurgiste tr&#232;s distingu&#233; m'a demand&#233; de visiter le centre de recherche d'un de ses groupes sur les ferrites ; il s'agissait en fait seulement de fabrication et on me sugg&#233;rait d'espionner Philips, ce qui n'&#233;tait pas dans mes cordes. Un jeune ing&#233;nieur italien de St Gobain (alors au Sud du Br&#233;sil) m'a spontan&#233;ment invit&#233; &#224; visiter le laboratoire et m'a parl&#233; de recherches int&#233;ressantes qu'il avait engag&#233;es sur les centres color&#233;s des verres tremp&#233;s ; jusqu'&#224; sa mort pr&#233;matur&#233;e, j'ai ensuite re&#231;u chaque ann&#233;e un cadeau, production Saint-Gobain. &lt;br class='autobr' /&gt;
Plus s&#233;rieusement, j'ai gard&#233; deux contacts suivis mais avec des organismes de recherche appliqu&#233;e : avec l'IRSID o&#249; j'ai &#233;t&#233; conseiller pendant pr&#232;s de 30 ans et avec le CEA o&#249; j'ai &#233;t&#233; &#233;galement conseiller de 1955 jusqu'apr&#232;s ma retraite. E. Grison, qui m'a recrut&#233;, dirigeait la m&#233;tallurgie civile de l'uranium et du plutonium (qui donnera le MOX). Mais tr&#232;s rapidement, j'ai d&#233;bord&#233; vers des probl&#232;mes de chimie physique et la physique de Saclay. Mon activit&#233; a &#233;t&#233; essentiellement fondamentale, au CEA comme &#224; l'IRSID. J'y ai dirig&#233; des th&#232;ses toujours dans des domaines fondamentaux : Y. Qu&#233;r&#233; par exemple sur les d&#233;fauts d'irradiation dans les m&#233;taux, travaux sous-tendus par les questions de fragilit&#233;, gonflement, fluage sous irradiation dans les r&#233;acteurs nucl&#233;aires ; M. Kl&#233;man sur les ph&#233;nom&#232;nes magn&#233;to&#233;lastiques qui jouent un r&#244;le majeur dans les m&#233;moires magn&#233;tiques, en couches minces. J'ai aussi &#233;t&#233; longtemps au conseil d'administration du LEP (Laboratoire d'&#233;tudes de Philips en France). J'ai pr&#233;sid&#233; les conseils scientifiques de Saint-Gobain et de France-T&#233;l&#233;com, apr&#232;s celui du CENT (Centre national d'&#233;tudes en t&#233;l&#233;communications) de Bageux sur les semiconducteurs.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;BBV : &lt;i&gt;Ces pr&#233;sidences &#233;taient-elles honorifiques ou plut&#244;t directives ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;JF : Comme toujours c'&#233;tait ni blanc ni noir. Le CNET Bagneux puis France T&#233;l&#233;com sont de bons exemples. Les cr&#233;ateurs du CNET Bagneux, M. Bernard et J. Serphagnon, avaient le souci que le laboratoire garde une excellence fondamentale tout en s'ouvrant largement sur la recherche appliqu&#233;e. Pr&#233;sidant alors la Commission de physique des solides du CNRS, j'ai facilit&#233; la cr&#233;ation d'un laboratoire associ&#233; CNET/CNRS dont j'ai pr&#233;sid&#233; le Conseil scientifique durant plusieurs ann&#233;es. Ces r&#233;unions annuelles obligeaient les gens de laboratoire &#224; rendre compte et les dirigeants du CNET &#224; prendre position sur le d&#233;veloppement du laboratoire. Avec l'adjonction d'une section venant purement des applications, puis d'un groupe propre du CNRS, l'ensemble &#233;tait, lors de la cr&#233;ation de France-T&#233;l&#233;com l'un des meilleurs laboratoires de semiconducteurs hors silicium en Europe (compos&#233;s II-V et organiques essentiellement). &lt;br class='autobr' /&gt;
J'ai quitt&#233; le CNET-Bagneux pour devenir le premier pr&#233;sident du Conseil scientifique de France T&#233;l&#233;com. L&#224; les probl&#232;mes &#233;taient d'un tout autre ordre, techniques d'abord, puis rapidement &#233;conomiques et politiques. Dans un premier temps, quand France T&#233;l&#233;com &#233;tait nationalis&#233;, nous avons de nouveau oblig&#233; les gens &#224; pr&#233;senter leurs probl&#232;mes et leurs solutions et nous avons &#339;uvr&#233; pour l'ouverture de France T&#233;l&#233;com &#224; la recherche fran&#231;aise ext&#233;rieure. Le temps de la privatisation, avec le d&#233;veloppement d'Internet et du portable, a conduit &#224; l'abandon des grands secteurs de la recherche - y compris au Centre de Bagneux - et &#224; la mise en sommeil de r&#233;flexions &#224; long terme sur les nouveaux mat&#233;riaux (organiques en particulier) comme sur les r&#233;seaux. Nous avons &#233;clair&#233;, dans notre mesure, sur les dangers tant imm&#233;diats qu'&#224; long terme et cherch&#233; &#224; &#233;viter que France T&#233;l&#233;com se referme sur elle-m&#234;me au point de vue recherche.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;HA : &lt;i&gt;Vous avez mentionn&#233; les deux orientations de vos recherches vers l'&#233;lectronique des m&#233;taux et les dislocations. J'ai le sentiment qu'&#224; un moment vous avez favoris&#233; le premier et un peu abandonn&#233; le second.&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;JF : Depuis Bristol, j'ai toujours eu une activit&#233; de recherche sur l'&#233;lectronique des solides. J'ai essay&#233; de d&#233;velopper des mod&#232;les approximatifs mais simples, compr&#233;hensibles et m&#234;me utilisables par des non-sp&#233;cialistes. Je suis un vrai &#233;l&#232;ve de N. F. Mott en ce que, dans un domaine complexe o&#249; 1024 particules sont en interactions fortes, des caricatures faites sur un dos d'enveloppe me semblent pouvoir &#234;tre plus pertinentes que des collections de papillons, photos l&#233;ch&#233;es &#224; l'ordinateur mais souvent peu g&#233;n&#233;ralisables. Apr&#232;s de nombreuses &#233;tudes sur les alliages m&#233;talliques d&#233;velopp&#233;es avec mes th&#233;sards, je me suis int&#233;ress&#233; &#224; la coh&#233;sion et au magn&#233;tisme des m&#233;taux purs, dont les &#233;lectrons de valence sp, d ou f sont progressivement localis&#233;s et demandent des approximations diff&#233;rentes. Je me suis aussi int&#233;ress&#233; aux covalents sp qui gardent, avec l'ordre local, une bande interdite de covalence m&#234;me dans l'&#233;tat amorphe. Plus r&#233;cemment je me suis int&#233;ress&#233; &#224; la physique, tr&#232;s riche, des surfaces et des agr&#233;gats, sans oublier des sujets &#224; la mode comme les supraconducteurs ou les quasicristaux.&lt;br class='autobr' /&gt;
J'ai abandonn&#233; pour un temps les dislocations apr&#232;s la seconde &#233;dition de mon livre (1964) sous la pression des &#233;v&#233;nements et puis parce que j'avais le sentiment de n'avoir plus trop &#224; dire sur le sujet, du fait notamment que je n'avais pas d&#233;velopp&#233; de groupe exp&#233;rimental &#224; Orsay sur ce sujet. Mais j'y suis revenu avec les cristaux liquides. De Gennes avait &#233;t&#233; persuad&#233; par G. Durand, rentrant de Harvard, de l'int&#233;r&#234;t de ce domaine m&#233;soscopique justiciable de m&#233;thodes d'analyse analogues &#224; la m&#233;thode qu'il avait utilis&#233;e pour les supraconducteurs. De Gennes s'est pench&#233; sur l'&#233;tude des dislocations de ces corps. Mais c'est plut&#244;t Maurice Kl&#233;man (laboratoire de Physique des solides d'Orsay, puis laboratoire de min&#233;ralogie et cristallographie de Jussieu) qui a d&#233;velopp&#233; ce domaine en liaison avec F.C. Franck. Je me suis remis &#224; ce sujet, notamment aux possibilit&#233;s de dislocations de rotation caract&#233;ristiques de certaines de ces phases. Les r&#233;seaux plus ou moins r&#233;guliers de telles dislocations posent des probl&#232;mes topologiques int&#233;ressants, mis en jeu dans certaines phases m&#233;somorphes dites cholest&#233;riques (germes, phases bleues) mais aussi dans les quasicristaux. J'ai gard&#233; le contact puisque cette ann&#233;e j'ai r&#233;dig&#233; des pr&#233;faces substantielles pour deux gros livres sur la dislocation dans les cristaux liquides. J'ai fait aussi un commentaire introductif &#224; un gros bouquin sur l'&#233;crouissage des m&#233;taux qui reste toujours un probl&#232;me ouvert.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;HA : &lt;i&gt;Vous avez &#233;voqu&#233; les supraconducteurs &#224; propos de De Gennes. Comment avez vous v&#233;cu l'arriv&#233;e des cuprates et l'excitation sur les supraconducteurs ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;JF : Les Fran&#231;ais auraient d&#251; d&#233;couvrir les supraconducteurs cuprates si les chimistes des cuprates avaient accueilli des physiciens. C'est un beau contre-exemple de l'interdisciplinarit&#233;. &lt;br class='autobr' /&gt;
J'&#233;tais int&#233;ress&#233; par les supraconducteurs organiques. Il y a pas mal d'analogies avec les cuprates car ce sont des structures anisotropes faites de cha&#238;nes ou de plans d'atomes parall&#232;les ou faiblement li&#233;s. Donc d'un certain point de vue les oxydes m'ont attir&#233; toute de suite un peu comme une extension des organiques de J&#233;r&#244;me (J. Denis J&#233;r&#244;me, laboratoire de Physique des solides d'Orsay). Mais je m'int&#233;ressais aux oxydes dans un esprit assez conservateur. Au lieu d'aller vers des choses nouvelles et compliqu&#233;es, je pr&#233;f&#233;rais voir si une approche BCS classique ne pouvait pas marcher. Je pensais notamment que les corr&#233;lations &#233;lectroniques dont B. Schrieffer, M. Rice et P.A. Anderson faisaient tout un plat, existaient certainement mais peut-&#234;tre pas de fa&#231;on plus notable que dans les m&#233;taux de transition comme le nickel ou le chrome que j'avais pr&#233;c&#233;demment &#233;tudi&#233;s. Je ne crois donc pas aux constructions magnifiques de Phil Anderson pour les oxydes. Mais ma position est controvers&#233;e : on m'a demand&#233; pr&#232;s de 100 tir&#233;s-&#224; part d'un article de revue &#233;crit l'ann&#233;e de ma retraite ; mais on ne me cite jamais ! D'une fa&#231;on plus g&#233;n&#233;rale, je pense que trop de gens se sont lanc&#233;s dans une qu&#234;te sans espoir d'un second Nobel apr&#232;s M&#252;ller.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;BBV : &lt;i&gt;Et comment voyez vous le futur des supraconducteurs ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;JF : Il n'y a pas encore d'applications industrielles mirobolantes. Il faudra du temps ! Mais les supraconducteurs ont deux apports quasi certains :&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;ul class=&#034;spip&#034; role=&#034;list&#034;&gt;&lt;li&gt; ils permettront peut-&#234;tre de petits montages dans des syst&#232;mes &#233;lectroniques de faibles puissances. De ce point de vue les gens de la Bell (Batlog, Sc&#246;n) ont montr&#233; r&#233;cemment une voie certes difficile &#224; mettre en &#339;uvre mais tr&#232;s int&#233;ressante.&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li&gt; ils ouvrent la voie &#224; des m&#233;thodes qu'on pourrait utiliser en d'autres domaines. Par exemple, Fischer &#224; Gen&#232;ve fabrique des couches atome par atome. L'id&#233;e est de faire des compos&#233;s &#224; la demande avec des structures choisies, des compos&#233;s qui n'existent pas &#224; l'&#233;tat naturel, tout &#224; fait en dehors des &#233;quilibres thermodynamiques. Par le choix de ionocovalents qui ont une interdiffusion atomique faible, les interfaces chimiques entre couches gardent leur nettet&#233;.&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ul&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;HA : &lt;i&gt;Quelle fut d'apr&#232;s vous la d&#233;marche de M&#252;ller &#224; Zurich ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;JF : M&#252;ller &#233;tait un sp&#233;cialiste tr&#232;s connu des ferro&#233;lectriques. Il est all&#233; &#224; une &#233;cole d'&#233;t&#233; &#224; Carg&#232;se o&#249; des th&#233;oriciens de Grenoble ont &#233;voqu&#233; la possibilit&#233; pour des ferro&#233;lectriques de devenir supraconducteurs. A son retour, il a cherch&#233; lesquels conduisent l'&#233;lectricit&#233; et il a obtenu une supraconductivit&#233; &#224; assez haute temp&#233;rature. Le tort de M&#252;ller a &#233;t&#233; de s'accrocher &#224; l'id&#233;e de ferro&#233;lectriques &#224; laquelle personne ne croit plus gu&#232;re.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;BBV : &lt;i&gt;Pensez vous qu'il y a un lien historique ou logique entre la supraconductivit&#233; et la conductivit&#233; ionique qu'on a appel&#233;e pendant un temps superconductivit&#233; ionique ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;JF : Il n'y a aucun lien. L'analogie des noms est trompeuse. La conductivit&#233; ionique est un ph&#233;nom&#232;ne atomique classique, alors que la supraconductivit&#233; est de nature quantique et &#233;lectronique (malgr&#233; M&#252;ller). &lt;br class='autobr' /&gt;
Par contre, les superfluides, ou liquides quantiques ont un lien avec les supraconducteurs, rendu possible par la l&#233;g&#232;ret&#233; des atomes mis en jeu.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;HA : &lt;i&gt;Quelle est votre attitude &#224; l'&#233;gard des instruments en g&#233;n&#233;ral et des grands instruments en particulier ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;JF : Je suis un pur th&#233;oricien mais, comme De Gennes, j'aime &#234;tre entour&#233; d'exp&#233;rimentateurs. A Orsay, o&#249; De Gennes nous a rejoints en 1961, on a recrut&#233; des exp&#233;rimentateurs pou compl&#233;ter les groupes d&#233;j&#224; existants de A Guinier et R. Castaing. C'&#233;tait difficile car il y avait en France peu d'exp&#233;rimentateurs qualifi&#233;s en structure &#233;lectronique des solides, surtout des m&#233;taux. Les premiers ont &#233;t&#233; J. P. Burger, puis Etienne Guyon et C. Froidevaux, un Suisse que nous avons attir&#233; par un poste de professeur d'&#233;change et Campbell, un Ecossais invit&#233; par le CNRS. De toute fa&#231;on il s'agissait d'exp&#233;riences avec de petits instruments.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;span class='spip_document_182 spip_documents spip_documents_center'&gt;
&lt;img src='https://www.sho.espci.fr/sites/www.sho.espci.fr/local/cache-vignettes/L400xH300/Friedel-figure6-entretien-32611.jpg?1737515911' width='400' height='300' alt=&#034;&#034; /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Quand j'&#233;tais conseiller de la DRME (Direction de la recherche militaire et des &#233;tudes) j'ai facilit&#233; l'&#233;quipement de nombreux laboratoires, notamment en province, coupl&#233;s &#224; des programmes de recherche fondamentale. Il s'agissait de ce qu'on a appel&#233; plus tard les &#171; instruments mi-lourds &#187;, basses temp&#233;ratures, microscopie &#233;lectronique, appareils de r&#233;sonance... C'&#233;tait d'une certaine fa&#231;on prendre le relais des contrats militaires am&#233;ricains qui ont aid&#233; beaucoup de mes coll&#232;gues &#224; d&#233;marrer la recherche fondamentale apr&#232;s la guerre.&lt;br class='autobr' /&gt;
Quant aux grands instruments, j'ai toujours pens&#233; que, comme la langue d'Esope, tout d&#233;pendait de la fa&#231;on de s'en servir. Collectionner des spectres de phonons ou de neutrons pour un compos&#233; ou un autre, n'a pour moi gu&#232;re d'int&#233;r&#234;t et prend beaucoup de temps. Mais le programme de l'Institut Laue-Langevin (ILL) &#224; Grenoble ne fait heureusement gu&#232;re de place &#224; ce genre d'activit&#233;s. J'ai toujours pens&#233; que ces grands instruments peuvent offrir des possibilit&#233;s absolument in&#233;dites pour la physique, la chimie, la biologie en g&#233;n&#233;ral et pour les mat&#233;riaux en particulier. J'ai donc travaill&#233; dans ce sens en plusieurs occasions.&lt;br class='autobr' /&gt;
A Orsay, par exemple, j'ai suscit&#233; la r&#233;union de physiciens des particules et de physiciens des solides qui a permis d'ouvrir l'acc&#233;l&#233;rateur nucl&#233;aire au rayonnement synchrotron, c'est &#224; dire &#224; la naissance de LURE (Laboratoire d'Utilisation du Rayonnement Electromagn&#233;tique). Sous la pression du radiobiologiste V. Luzzati, que j'avais connu au Conseil scientifique de l'ILL, et de mon jeune coll&#232;gue Y. Farge de notre laboratoire, j'ai convaincu mon ami Laguarrigue, directeur de l'acc&#233;l&#233;rateur lin&#233;aire, de tenter cette exp&#233;rience. J'en ai suivi les premiers pas. &lt;br class='autobr' /&gt;
En 2000 je suis intervenu aupr&#232;s du gouvernement pour le faire revenir sur sa d&#233;cision d'annuler le projet SOLEIL, successeur de LURE. Cette d&#233;marche avait trois raisons :&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;ol class=&#034;spip&#034; role=&#034;list&#034;&gt;&lt;li&gt; Il faut quelques tr&#232;s grands instruments (comme l'ESRF de Grenoble pour le rayonnement synchrotron) fonctionnant &#224; l'&#233;chelle europ&#233;enne. Leur fonction est de d&#233;couvrir des techniques nouvelles en physique et en chimie ce qui est rendu possible par les propri&#233;t&#233;s sp&#233;cifiques (polarisation, coh&#233;rence, hachage temporel) et par l'accroissement de la puissance et la d&#233;finition de ce rayonnement compar&#233; aux sources classiques ou aux lasers. Mais un tel &#233;quipement est trop vite satur&#233; pour r&#233;pondre aux besoins &#224; l'&#233;chelle nationale, o&#249; il faut former des chercheurs et appliquer ces techniques, dans des exp&#233;riences souvent longues. Tout cela co&#251;te de l'argent mais si l'on consid&#232;re le nombre de personnes engag&#233;es dans ces exp&#233;riences ce n'est pas exorbitant.&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li&gt; Le synchrotron est aussi utile aux &#233;tudes biologiques. Il y a l&#224; un domaine en plein d&#233;veloppement o&#249; le synchrotron n'est pas actuellement rempla&#231;able, notamment pour l'&#233;tude structurale de mol&#233;cules complexes. On peut noter qu'il y a l&#224; une extension n&#233;cessaire de la notion de mat&#233;riaux : par exemple, les techniques de croissance des cristaux de mol&#233;cules &#224; longues chaines posent des probl&#232;mes sp&#233;cifiques qui devraient &#234;tre analys&#233;s en priorit&#233; et o&#249; la participation de physiciens et de chimistes est indispensable.&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li&gt; Enfin ces grosses machines sont aussi des lieux de rassemblement interdisciplinaire...du moins si on s'y prend bien. Il ne suffit pas d'installer des machines pour g&#233;n&#233;rer de la collaboration.&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;BBV : &lt;i&gt;Quelle fut votre attitude &#224; l'&#233;gard de la politique fran&#231;aise sur les mat&#233;riaux ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;JF : Je regrette que le gouvernement ait abandonn&#233; pour la recherche son affichage d'une priorit&#233; mat&#233;riaux. Je suis convaincu que c'est un secteur essentiel de la recherche o&#249; le fondamental et les applications, les universit&#233;s, l'industrie et les organismes de recherche appliqu&#233;e peuvent et doivent se rencontrer sur un pied d'&#233;galit&#233;. L'id&#233;e que l'on puisse d&#233;velopper les sciences de l'information ou les sciences de la vie sans une solide base mat&#233;riaux est une id&#233;e de pays sous-d&#233;velopp&#233; !&lt;br class='autobr' /&gt;
Il me semble aussi clair que le domaine g&#233;n&#233;ral des mat&#233;riaux est en &#233;volution rapide, avec une importance croissante des secteurs mat&#233;riaux organiques, composites &#224; l'&#233;chelle atomique, importance croissante aussi du m&#233;soscopique. Tout pays qui ignorera les probl&#232;mes de &#171; hard &#187; en ne privil&#233;giant que le &#171; soft &#187; ou le &#171; bio &#187; perdra &#224; la longue dans la comp&#233;tition.&lt;br class='autobr' /&gt;
Je suis aussi pour l'interdisciplinarit&#233; qui sous-tend la recherche en mat&#233;riaux. De ce point de vue que l'on ait d&#233;velopp&#233; ce facteur dans les maitrises universitaires, que l'on ait cr&#233;&#233; aussi des enseignements d'&#233;coles d'ing&#233;nieurs et des DEA sp&#233;cifiquement mat&#233;riaux me semble une bonne chose, comme aussi la r&#233;ussite de certains instituts CNRS-universit&#233;s ou CNRS-industrie de mat&#233;riaux. &lt;br class='autobr' /&gt;
Mais ce n'est pas la panac&#233;e : le secteur est tellement &#233;norme qu'il faut forc&#233;ment se sp&#233;cialiser. Je crois au travail en commun de chercheurs form&#233;s de diff&#233;rentes fa&#231;ons ; je crois aux &#233;changes de chercheurs, aux collaborations. Mais ceci n'implique pas pour tout le monde l'abandon des grandes divisions de sp&#233;cialistes, que ce soit &#224; l'Universit&#233; ou au CNRS. Je regrette pareillement l'abandon de laboratoires fortement affich&#233;s dans certaines branches de la physique et de la chimie. &lt;br class='autobr' /&gt;
Enfin je pense que, particuli&#232;rement dans le secteur des mat&#233;riaux, le d&#233;veloppement instrumental - des microscopes atomiques au rayonnement synchrotron - a jou&#233; un r&#244;le majeur dans les d&#233;veloppements r&#233;cents. Et rien ne permet de dire que cette dynamique tr&#232;s interdisciplinaire, va se tarir.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;i&gt;Fin de l'enregistrement&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;hr class=&#034;spip&#034; /&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;span class='spip_document_184 spip_documents spip_documents_center'&gt;
&lt;img src='https://www.sho.espci.fr/sites/www.sho.espci.fr/local/cache-vignettes/L400xH300/Friedel-figure7-lettre-4ad4d.jpg?1737515911' width='400' height='300' alt=&#034;&#034; /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Ch&#232;re Madame Bensaude-Vincent,&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;J'ai lu avec attention et int&#233;r&#234;t votre analyse sur &#171; Materials Science in the United States &#187;. Je pense que vous avez fait un effort de synth&#232;se remarquable sur un sujet aussi diffus et la lecture de votre texte avant notre interview aurait peut-&#234;tre permis de mieux polariser notre discussion.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;J'ai quelques remarques g&#233;n&#233;rales : le titre comporte &#171; sciences &#187; mais le texte parle autant (dans la 2&#176; moiti&#233;) d'&#171; engineering &#187;. D'autre part le texte d&#233;borde largement des US.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Je pense que la &#171; dynamique &#187;mat&#233;riaux s'est d&#233;velopp&#233;e aux US par suite d'un manque d'instituts ou de grands laboratoires de recherche universitaire en dehors des domaines &#224; grands instruments comme le nucl&#233;aire, les hautes &#233;nergies, le spatial.... La situation est un peu similaire en GB (&#224; part des centres peu nombreux comme Cambridge, Oxford, Bristol...), mais diff&#233;rente en Allemagne (avec les Max Planck), en France : &#224; partir des ann&#233;es 40 (LP CNRS ) et surtout 60 (LA CNRS).&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Il y a d'autre part certains manques. Vous ne parlez pas des cristallographes qui, en GB, en Allemagne et en France mais aussi aux USA, ont jou&#233; un r&#244;le pionnier dans l'&#233;tude des cristaux, des d&#233;fauts cristallins, des amorphes, des changements de phase comme dans le d&#233;veloppement des instruments (neutrons aux USA), &#233;lectrons en GB, rayonnement synchrotron (en Italie puis aux USA et en France...).&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;La c&#233;sure entre mat&#233;riaux de structure et mat&#233;riaux &#233;lectroniques, tr&#232;s dommageable aux deux, particuli&#232;rement forte aux USA n'est que not&#233;e au passage. Enfin des domaines certes tr&#232;s europ&#233;ens au d&#233;part comme les agr&#233;gats et les quasicristaux manquent un peu.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Une &#233;tude aurait pu &#234;tre faite sur l'analyse des relaxations plastiques en front de fissure. Celle-ci avait, avant le d&#233;veloppement des dislocations, pris un virage tr&#232;s fondamental, barr&#233; avec les accidents des Comets par l'urgence de trouver des parades pratiques. On est revenu aux analyses macroscopiques, avec des param&#232;tres tir&#233;s de l'exp&#233;rience mais qui varient avec les conditions de fracture. Ce n'est qu'assez r&#233;cemment, avec des gens comme Pinault &#224; l'Ecole des mines &#8211; Corbeil, qu'on est revenu &#224; des analyses plus microscopiques et physicochimiques. Cet aller-retour est, je pense, typique de bien des domaines. Il souligne une difficult&#233; fondamentale de traiter un domaine comme un tout. C'est le dialogue qui doit &#234;tre perp&#233;tuel entre les progr&#232;s fondamentaux et les applications. Sauf cas tr&#232;s rares, je ne crois pas qu'un seul institut des mat&#233;riaux, universitaire ou industriel, ait cr&#233;&#233; de toutes pi&#232;ces et en allant jusqu'&#224; l'application une seule d&#233;couverte utile.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Enfin sous cette pression US notamment, c'est le soutien de toute recherche dans le &#171; hard &#187; qui a &#233;t&#233; compris comme &#171; materials &#187;, en opposition avec le &#171; soft &#187; et le &#171; bio &#187;. Ces derni&#232;res ann&#233;es, ce sont ces deux autres domaines qui ont eu la supr&#233;matie. Mais je ne pense pas la situation viable tr&#232;s longtemps.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Bien cordialement&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Jacques Friedel&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;span class='spip_document_185 spip_documents spip_documents_center'&gt;
&lt;img src='https://www.sho.espci.fr/sites/www.sho.espci.fr/local/cache-vignettes/L400xH300/Friedel-figure8-lettre-455a8.jpg?1737515911' width='400' height='300' alt=&#034;&#034; /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
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&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href='https://www.sho.espci.fr/spip.php?article80' class=&#034;spip_in&#034;&gt;haut de page&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href='https://www.sho.espci.fr/spip.php?page=sommaire'&gt;accueil du site&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
		&lt;div class='rss_ps'&gt;&lt;p&gt;Entretien avec Jacques Friedel, par Herv&#233; Arribart et Bernadette Bensaude-Vincent, 17 octobre 2001.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Lieu : &lt;i&gt;Acad&#233;mie des Sciences&lt;/i&gt;, France.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Support : enregistrement sur cassette.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href='https://www.sho.espci.fr/spip.php?article80' class=&#034;spip_in&#034;&gt;Transcription&lt;/a&gt; : &lt;a href='https://www.sho.espci.fr/spip.php?article7' class=&#034;spip_in&#034;&gt;Bernadette Bensaude-Vincent&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href='https://www.sho.espci.fr/spip.php?article45'&gt;Herv&#233; Arribart&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&#201;dition en ligne : &lt;a href='https://www.sho.espci.fr/spip.php?article79' class=&#034;spip_in&#034;&gt;Sophie Jourdin&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;
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		</content:encoded>


		

	</item>
<item xml:lang="fr">
		<title>DRESSELHAUS Mildred S., 2001-10-25</title>
		<link>https://www.sho.espci.fr/spip.php?article82</link>
		<guid isPermaLink="true">https://www.sho.espci.fr/spip.php?article82</guid>
		<dc:date>2011-06-18T22:59:55Z</dc:date>
		<dc:format>text/html</dc:format>
		<dc:language>fr</dc:language>
		<dc:creator>Sophie Jourdin</dc:creator>


		<dc:subject>batteries solides</dc:subject>
		<dc:subject>Whittingham, Stanley</dc:subject>
		<dc:subject>Rouxel, Jean</dc:subject>
		<dc:subject>solid state ionics</dc:subject>
		<dc:subject>Goodenough, John B.</dc:subject>
		<dc:subject> [SIGLES UTILIS&#201;S]</dc:subject>
		<dc:subject>chimie physique</dc:subject>
		<dc:subject>Endo, Morinobu</dc:subject>
		<dc:subject>Dresselhaus, Mildred S. </dc:subject>
		<dc:subject>fibres de carbone </dc:subject>
		<dc:subject>nanotubes de carbone </dc:subject>
		<dc:subject>fuller&#232;nes</dc:subject>

		<description>
&lt;p&gt;Mildred Dresselhaus est n&#233;e en 1930 &#224; Broolkyn, New York. Elle &#233;tudie la physique au Cavendish laboratory de l'University of Cambridge en 1951-1952. De retour aux &#201;tats-Unis, elle obtient en 1953 un Master Degree au Radcliffe college et un PhD en physique &#224; l'Universit&#233; de Chicago en 1958. Elle se consacre alors &#224; la physique du solide, &#224; la supraconductivit&#233; et &#224; la magn&#233;to-optique. Elle int&#232;gre ensuite le Lincoln lab du Massachusetts institute of technology (MIT). Avec son mari Gene (&#8230;)&lt;/p&gt;


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&lt;a href="https://www.sho.espci.fr/spip.php?mot34" rel="tag"&gt;batteries solides&lt;/a&gt;, 
&lt;a href="https://www.sho.espci.fr/spip.php?mot36" rel="tag"&gt;Whittingham, Stanley&lt;/a&gt;, 
&lt;a href="https://www.sho.espci.fr/spip.php?mot38" rel="tag"&gt;Rouxel, Jean&lt;/a&gt;, 
&lt;a href="https://www.sho.espci.fr/spip.php?mot44" rel="tag"&gt;solid state ionics&lt;/a&gt;, 
&lt;a href="https://www.sho.espci.fr/spip.php?mot50" rel="tag"&gt;Goodenough, John B.&lt;/a&gt;, 
&lt;a href="https://www.sho.espci.fr/spip.php?mot51" rel="tag"&gt; [SIGLES UTILIS&#201;S]&lt;/a&gt;, 
&lt;a href="https://www.sho.espci.fr/spip.php?mot67" rel="tag"&gt;chimie physique&lt;/a&gt;, 
&lt;a href="https://www.sho.espci.fr/spip.php?mot70" rel="tag"&gt;Endo, Morinobu&lt;/a&gt;, 
&lt;a href="https://www.sho.espci.fr/spip.php?mot72" rel="tag"&gt;Dresselhaus, Mildred S. &lt;/a&gt;, 
&lt;a href="https://www.sho.espci.fr/spip.php?mot80" rel="tag"&gt;fibres de carbone &lt;/a&gt;, 
&lt;a href="https://www.sho.espci.fr/spip.php?mot83" rel="tag"&gt;nanotubes de carbone &lt;/a&gt;, 
&lt;a href="https://www.sho.espci.fr/spip.php?mot84" rel="tag"&gt;fuller&#232;nes&lt;/a&gt;

		</description>


 <content:encoded>&lt;div class='rss_chapo'&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;csfoo htmla&#034;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span class='spip_document_206 spip_documents spip_documents_right' style='float:right;'&gt;
&lt;img src='https://www.sho.espci.fr/sites/www.sho.espci.fr/IMG/jpg/millie_TN-.jpg' width=&#034;150&#034; height=&#034;170&#034; alt=&#034;&#034; /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;csfoo htmlb&#034;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br class='autobr' /&gt;
&lt;strong&gt;Mildred Dresselhaus&lt;/strong&gt; est n&#233;e en 1930 &#224; Broolkyn, New York. Elle &#233;tudie la physique au &lt;a href=&#034;http://www.phy.cam.ac.uk/&#034; class=&#034;spip_out&#034; rel=&#034;external&#034;&gt;&lt;i&gt;Cavendish laboratory&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/a&gt; de l'&lt;a href=&#034;http://www.cam.ac.uk/&#034; class=&#034;spip_out&#034; rel=&#034;external&#034;&gt;&lt;i&gt;University of Cambridge&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/a&gt; en 1951-1952. De retour aux &#201;tats-Unis, elle obtient en 1953 un &lt;i&gt;Master Degree&lt;/i&gt; au &lt;a href=&#034;http://www.radcliffe.edu/&#034; class=&#034;spip_out&#034; rel=&#034;external&#034;&gt;&lt;i&gt;Radcliffe college&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/a&gt; et un PhD en physique &#224; l'&lt;a href=&#034;http://www.uchicago.edu/index.shtml&#034; class=&#034;spip_out&#034; rel=&#034;external&#034;&gt;Universit&#233; de Chicago&lt;/a&gt; en 1958. Elle se consacre alors &#224; la physique du solide, &#224; la supraconductivit&#233; et &#224; la magn&#233;to-optique. Elle int&#232;gre ensuite le &lt;a href=&#034;http://www.ll.mit.edu/&#034; class=&#034;spip_out&#034; rel=&#034;external&#034;&gt;Lincoln lab du &lt;i&gt;Massachusetts institute of technology&lt;/i&gt; (MIT)&lt;/a&gt;. Avec son mari Gene Dresselhaus, elle oriente alors ses travaux vers l'&#233;tude de la structure &#233;lectronique des semi-m&#233;taux &#8211; et en particulier du graphite. En 1967, Mildred int&#232;gre le d&#233;partement d'&lt;a href=&#034;http://www.eecs.mit.edu/&#034; class=&#034;spip_out&#034; rel=&#034;external&#034;&gt;&lt;i&gt;Electrical engineering&lt;/i&gt; du MIT&lt;/a&gt; comme Professeur associ&#233;. Elle dirige ensuite le &lt;a href=&#034;http://mit.edu/cmse/&#034; class=&#034;spip_out&#034; rel=&#034;external&#034;&gt;&lt;i&gt;Center for materials science and engineering&lt;/i&gt; du MIT&lt;/a&gt;. Elle devient Professeur de physique en 1983. En 1985, elle est la premi&#232;re femme &#224; &#234;tre nomm&#233;e &lt;i&gt;Institute Professor&lt;/i&gt; - le plus haut titre d'un membre de la Facult&#233; du MIT. Mildred Dresselhaus acc&#232;de ensuite &#224; des postes &#224; haute responsabilit&#233; en mati&#232;re de politique scientifique et de financement de la recherche o&#249; elle soutient activement les programmes de recherche en nanotechnologies. Milldred Dresselhaus est particuli&#232;rement connue pour son travail sur les propri&#233;t&#233;s &#233;lectroniques et photophysiques des allotropes du carbone : le graphite et ses compos&#233;s d'intercalation, le carbone microporeux, le charbon activ&#233;, les fibres de carbone, les a&#233;rogels de carbone, les fuller&#232;nes, les nanotubes de carbone et les mat&#233;riaux thermo&#233;lectriques de basse dimensionnalit&#233; (de z&#233;ro- &#224; 2-dimensions). Mildred Dresselhaus a co&#233;crit plusieurs livres sur la science du carbone. Elle a aussi travaill&#233; sur des mat&#233;riaux autres que carbon&#233;s, tels les nanofils de bismuth. Elle a re&#231;u de nombreuses distinctions scientifiques, et a &#233;t&#233; r&#233;compens&#233;e &#224; plusieurs reprises pour ses efforts visant &#224; promouvoir la participation accrue des femmes en sciences et en ing&#233;nierie. Enfin, &#034;Millie&#034; a encadr&#233; plus de 60 PhD, a quatre enfants adultes et plusieurs petits-enfants.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href='https://www.sho.espci.fr/spip.php?mot72' class=&#034;spip_in&#034;&gt;Biographie d&#233;taill&#233;e&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
		&lt;div class='rss_texte'&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;BERNADETTE BENSAUDE-VINCENT (BBV) : &lt;i&gt;How did you make the choice of superconductivity at the University of Chicago in the 1950s ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;MILDRED DRESSELHAUS (MD) : We were encouraged to be independent. Brian Pippard from Cambridge was there for a year and helped define a topic for my thesis. He had been working on Fermi surface of copper. He suggested studying the response of a superconductor in a magnetic field. I made many measurements with various materials in various conditions. And I got unexpected results.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;BBV : &lt;i&gt;Was it before the BCS theory ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;MD : Yes it was before the BCS theory and when I published my results Bardeen became interested in them because they could not be explained by their theory. He gave the problem of finding an explanation for it to someone else. I worked with my husband on the model but we did not get a good one. Somebody solved the problem 20 years ago. It was not a consequence of BCS and it was not an important effect for superconductivity.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;BBV : &lt;i&gt;What was the situation at the Lincoln Lab when you moved there ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;MD : It was a Defense Lab there was a bunch of interesting projects going on. These were the wonderful years in solid-state physics. Lasers came. I was given so much freedom that I did not have to work on lasers.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;BBV : &lt;i&gt;How did you choose your new research topic ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;span class='spip_document_186 spip_documents spip_documents_right' style='float:right;'&gt;
&lt;img src='https://www.sho.espci.fr/sites/www.sho.espci.fr/local/cache-vignettes/L200xH150/Dresselhaus-Figure1-49980.jpg?1737739952' width='200' height='150' alt=&#034;&#034; /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;MD : It was a wonderful career change. I started up magneto-optics. There were new techniques to be learnt, optics in particular. I was working at the High Field Lab, in the basement of Building 4. John Goodenough was my neighbor. I wanted to be independent. Each material has its material science. I decided to work on graphite. There was no competition at that time. The materials science on graphite came from the UK. A highly oriented pyrolytic graphite came from Imperial College in London. The synthesis of diamond had raised interest in the phase diagram. There was an interest in carbon because of its different phases, interesting especially for space programs.&lt;br class='autobr' /&gt;
For my experiments I needed a good crystalline structure for the electrons to circle. For the theory problem Joel McClure from Chicago University helped me. A paper was published in the &lt;i&gt;IBM Journal for Research and Development&lt;/i&gt; in 1963. Then every year we improved the model. With my second graduate student we turned the established view of the structure of graphite upside down : we put holes were electrons were supposed to be and vice versa. The paper came out in 1968. It turned out to provide the explanation of many effects. It was a real pleasure to hear McClure at the Conference of Low Dimensional Materials in 1970.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;ARNE HESSENBRUCH (AH) : &lt;i&gt;Did you have any connections with the Interdisciplinary Laboratory that was set up at MIT in these years ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;MD : I had contacts with A. von Hippel. He was a good friend. The whole idea that Materials Science was interdisciplinary was his idea. He had suggested interdisciplinary laboratories in 1936 and WWII reinforced his view. He started an interdisciplinary laboratory of his own. The Magnet Lab where I was working was separated from von Hippel's. Ben Lax had started a new interdisciplinary lab with Defense money.&lt;br class='autobr' /&gt;
I was at home in an Interdisciplinary Lab. My PhD thesis was prepared in an interdisciplinary environment. The Institute of Metals at Chicago University had been sponsored by industry. There were chemists, physicists, all disciplines. The Institute's chair, Cyril S. Smith, advocated interdisciplinarity. He became an historian like his wife in the last 20 years of his life. He did both physics and history.&lt;br class='autobr' /&gt;
At MIT, Gordon Brown, the Dean of Engineering, had the idea that engineers should think like physicists. I was asked to teach physics to engineers not in the physics department. This is the MIT tendency to emphasize the practical side rather than the theoretical side. &lt;br class='autobr' /&gt;
I had no prejudice for engineers because I needed them for what I was doing. I was affiliated with Electrical Engineering before I got a Chair.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;AH : &lt;i&gt;What was the situation when you became Director of the MSE Department in 1977 ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;MD : I was the 3rd director. The Lab was in big trouble because the NSF grant was about to be lost. I tried to keep funding coming in like all directors.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;BBV : &lt;i&gt;How did you come to the subject of intercalation compounds ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;MD : I entered the field in 1964. Ted Gaballe of Bell Labs had discovered superconductivity in alkali metal intercalated graphite. How could it be superconducting when none of its constituent were ? He knew my work on the electronic structure of graphite. So he asked me to look at the structure after intercalation. I had no idea of what the experiments should be. In 1971 Moore from Imperial College did the first experiment. So in 1973 I decided to the same with optics.&lt;br class='autobr' /&gt;
I wrote a proposal to get funds after some exploratory work. For the first time the proposal was refused. The reason was that my proposal concerned a complicated chemistry that I could not possibly get into : I did not get the money. I received my first grant on intercalation in 1977.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;BBV : &lt;i&gt;What was the situation in intercalation compounds when you entered the field ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;MD : There was an important conference in France at [?] near Nice organized by Jack Fischer and Vogo, a company manager who was influential in raising money. In fact the participants did not know each other and they started talking together. This conference had a great scientific impact. I wrote a review article for my students in 1978 that was published in 1981. It turned out to be quoted often, and often because I had few results to report. I pointed out it should go like this and that was the way it did go.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;AH : &lt;i&gt;Did you interact with Stan Whittingham ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;MD : Whittingham was there but I had no connection with him&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;BBV : &lt;i&gt;Did you meet with Jean Rouxel ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;MD : Oh yes, I met him in Nantes two months before his death.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;AH : &lt;i&gt;Who were the leaders in intercalation compounds ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;MD : Researchers in few countries are active in this field. The US has been active for a time. France had been active long before the USA and to a certain extent Germany also. Japan entered the field later with batteries but are still there. The first patent was taken in 1972.&lt;br class='autobr' /&gt;
We worked on intercalation compounds until 1989. Then I stopped because I did not have ideas big enough. You know the MIT rule : each PhD thesis should be innovative, bring something new.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;BBV : &lt;i&gt;Would you say that conferences and review essays were crucial in the emergence of this research field ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;MD : Yes review essays are a pedagogical style useful for shaping fields. I was asked to do the same for fullerenes and later for carbon fibers.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;BBV : &lt;i&gt;You've had a number of international collaborations. Did you notice different national styles in the domain of Materials Science and Engineering ?&lt;/i&gt;&lt;br class='autobr' /&gt;
&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;MD : There are more personal styles than national styles. Science is a universal language.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;i&gt;Fin de l'enregistrement&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
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&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;BERNADETTE BENSAUDE-VINCENT (BBV) : &lt;i&gt;So, we want to focus on certain materials on this site, because we want to discover, especially because it's imploding or exploding and one major problem, we have always put some stuff on on solid state batteries, intercalation compounds that you know very well.&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;MILDRED DRESSELHAUS (MD) : Yes, I know my contribution to the battery business is much more limited than the big deal of intercalation physics.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;BBV : &lt;i&gt;Yes, and also you've been working on superconductivity and especially materials when it was quite unusual and in the 1950s, so if you could just tell us, try to remember, the situation with superconductivity in the late 1950s when you came to Chicago University.&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
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&lt;p&gt;MD : OK so that's where you want to start... well that's kind of the beginning of my foray into materials science. So I was a graduate student at the University of Chicago and looking around for research topics because at the University of Chicago at that time the students worked very independently. They found their own topics and figured out how to work them out and they basically did everything, sort of, very much different from today. But I was a special case, so I did it even more independently than others who did it independently. It was a little bit of a sociological thing (I don't know if in the history of science, you like to have a lot of things that we don't report in our regular papers...). I had an advisor that believed that women should not be graduate students, and that it was a big waste of resources to have us, there were very very few of us at that time, about two percent of the graduate student body nationwide - in these fields. So, because I got so much harassment from him, I stayed away from him therefore I worked a lot more independently than I would have, so I didn't have many people to go to to ask questions. He was the only advisor for materials physics or solid state physics. Well I stumbled upon this field partly because of a visit of Brian Pippard who came to the University of Chicago in 1955 for a year to work out the Fermi Surface of Copper, which was a big breakthrough, it was how to do an experiment back then to predict in detail and also measure what was there. So he was there, and he was a big man also with superconductivity at that time, so he interacted with me a lot for the year I was there and we started on this project, he gave me a bunch of ideas, which was very helpful. So it wasn't that I was totally in a vacuum because it started out with an interaction. Then he left, to go back to Cambridge University, and I stayed on and we had intermittent contact by letter, or maybe we had three or four letter exchanges until my thesis was done so it wasn't very much. But for me, I learned, and reading the papers that he and others had written that you could measure something about superconductors by measuring microwave properties. So that's what I learned from him and then formulated a problem to see what a magnetic field does. As you know magnetic fields kills superconductivity at the transition temperature. When you put on a high enough magnetic field, it's the end of the superconducting phase - and it goes normal. So my project was to monitor what happened on the way to ending superconductivity, on the way to the phase transition. And so I measured several materials. My main material was tin because it was a convenient temperature range and you could make the samples pretty easily. But I also studied other samples.... (&lt;i&gt;MD turns off machine&lt;/i&gt;). Okay it's off. So I had magnetic field and different superconducting materials with different transition temperatures, and therefore also critical different magnetic fields. I did different orientations of the magnetic field. You know... all the various things you might think of, but I was stuck with one frequency range, because when you build microwave apparatus you're in one frequency range because everything hooks together and this was all homemade equipment because I had no money. But that was the time that you made your own equipment, it was all war surplus stuff that I found in some kind of stock room and throw it away here or there, and most of my equipment was like that, the rest of it I just made in the shop. So I learned how to do that get people in the shop to get me some instructions.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;ARNE HESSENBRUCH (AH) : &lt;i&gt;So you did have help on that score at least.&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;MD : No, I built it myself and designed it, but I had instruction because I never built equipment, I was just a graduate student I never was learning how to do all of this. But people were very helpful, so I got a lot of training like that, but that was the way we did a thesis in that time.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;BBV : &lt;i&gt;And did you have any idea of the BCS theory ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;MD : No it wasn't yet, no that came at the very end. So I go along here and I came up with some results that were somewhat counterintuitive. Because I expected that when you go from here to there it would be a continuous thing but instead I'm going toward the normal state before it got to the normal state it got sort of more superconducting, before it went normal. So it was a kind of anomalous effect. I saw it under many conditions and it always would seem to be there. And that was before BCS. I had all these results before BCS and then when BCS came out, BCS had nothing to say about anything anomalous like this. So, Bardeen was actually very interested in my results, because it couldn't be explained by his theory. Bardeen is B of BCS, a Senior person. So he invited me down to University of Illinois to talk to BCS. But I gave a colloqium there as a graduate student - which was pretty amazing - and I just remembered that because I just did a lecture series earlier this week at the University of Illinois, and I could tell them I was there in 1957, giving a lecture, and that I'm still alive and kicking ! They were kind of interested in that. So, well he got interested in my effect and he gave somebody else a project of trying to develop a theory, a detailed theory of application of BCS to microwaves and magnetic fields, et cetera. So it started a research direction for him, and from the experimental side, Pippard was surprised at what I got, so he assigned this project to two other students both of whom became probably people that you're interviewing, became well known in their own right.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;AH : &lt;i&gt;This was back in Cambridge then, right ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;MD : Well, it's a little more complicated. One of them was Paul Richards, who was an American who happened to be there, he may be on your list of people that you're interviewing. He was a postdoc, maybe he was a graduate student, I think he was a postdoc at the time, working in the Pippard group. So he did it at one frequency and Brian Josephson was another person probably on your list, he did it at another frequency after Richards. Paul Richards was, after me, he did it at a different frequency. One did lower, one did higher, something like that. They got basically the same results, more or less. Of course, different frequencies, different circumstances. So that was what happened and now their results spilled over into the 1960s, and my papers were published by 1958. They went on for maybe another three years, in different frequency ranges doing complementary experiments. But what happened to me, I didn't stay with this project for very long. I wanted to do more with it and I tried to develop some model with my husband who I got married to in 1958. So we worked on this, I don't know that we really got a good model, we didn't get a model for it, I would say we tried to follow up and improve what we had done.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;AH : &lt;i&gt;Sorry, your model, did you incorporate BCS and then try to also explain the effects from your experiment ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;MD : Yeah, what we were trying to do, take into account the details of fields and external fields, and we had RF fields [radio frequency fields] and external fields. We had different directions, RF fields and external fields.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;AH : &lt;i&gt;So what was your model ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;MD : I don't remember a whole lot about what we did at that time ! So many years ago ! And part of the reason I don't remember so much about it is that it didn't really have a big impact on anything. And for me, I had to switch fields, because when I got my next first job that was at Lincoln lab, I was told that that wasn't an area to work on because everything was solved. Of course my problem wasn't solved but it turned out that it was actually solved by somebody maybe ten or twenty years later... quite a long time later. And it turned out to be kind of an obscure, not so interesting effect that didn't have that much to do with BCS theory, but had something to do with the intricacies of all of these things interacting and the internal perturbations between them. But it wasn't an important effect as far for electromagnetic theory and it was not an important effect about superconductivity, although a lot of people's attention was attracted and there was some good work that was done, that is, the electrodynamics of BCS was worked out as a result of this. But that stood its test of time when later on high-TC [High-temperature superconductors] came along and gave another push looking at these things. So I moved off into a totally different field.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;BBV : &lt;i&gt;Who told you that you had to work on another field ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;AH : &lt;i&gt;Did you choose it yourself ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;BBV : &lt;i&gt;How was the prevision of working on this field formulated ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;br class='autobr' /&gt;
&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;MD : Well, you start a job, and you discuss what you're going to do and they were very delighted to have me, to do pretty much anything I wanted. I was working in a Defense lab, you know Lincoln Lab was a Defense lab, and they had a whole bunch of different projects that they had to get done. But they had a few people like me that could do anything they wanted in sort of the basic research area, we don't have jobs like that, so it's hard to explain to somebody what I was doing. But when somebody needed some advice about some solid-state physics topic, that was working on some kind of Defense project, so they would come around and I'd tell them what I knew about it, that was sort of the way that part worked. So I had a lot of freedom, and so, I came around there, I saw what people were working on, and it was just so many exciting things going on. This was really the heyday of solid-state physics. I arrived there in June 1960, these were wonderful years in solid state physics. Lasers came along in 1960, and in fact, most of the people in the division, solid state division, went to work in lasers. But I didn't, I was one of the people that had so much freedom, that I didn't even have to do lasers like when everyone else had to do lasers, was sort of doing what they wanted, but was urged to go into lasers, but I didn't do that. So I started in this magneto-optics business because I thought that this was a really hot topic. And I was right. So I learned totally new technique, I didn't know anything about it, and so it was a lot of new things that I had to learn to do all those experiments.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;AH : &lt;i&gt;What's the new technique ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;MD : Well, optics, I had never done optics before, and it was magnetic field research. Well I've done magnetic fields, but that was little tiny fields that I worked with, that I was doing superconductivity work with ; 1000 Gauss was as high as we went. These are little solenoids was all I worked with, and I had a chance to work in that high-field facility. That was just, just beginning to come online. That was a very good research direction, I worked in that field until the Magnet Lab disappeared from MIT, mid-nineties. So I worked in that area for many years, not necessarily on magneto-optics, I worked on a lot of things with applied magnetic fields. So this career change that was imposed on me was wonderful, it was an exciting field. It's good when you're young to work in areas that are new, and maybe superconductivity was not as active at that point. Now when you turn around and look at high-TC superconductivity, we could have discovered it at that time, because I knew about this, and my almost next door neighbor was John Goodenough, who was working on just those materials that were involved in High-TC. Actually we talked to each other but we never worked on any project, because it wasn't, I wasn't supposed to be working with him. No, we didn't have an idea to try his materials, down at low temperatures with the superconductivity, no one had an idea like that.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;BBV : &lt;i&gt;How can you explain, because you tried a lot of materials, you were free...?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
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&lt;p&gt;MD : No, I didn't try a lot of materials, I wasn't doing superconductivity. I made a switch to semiconductor physics basically at that point. So I was doing something different, and he was working with highly correlated materials. But not only studying magnetism, not studying superconductivity, that was.... But very very soon, after I learned of what they were doing I moved, I didn't want to work in the same areas that everybody was working on there was quite a large group, and most of them were doing very similar things. To me, the physics was not different, of course every material has a little different materials science, but there were no really new concepts, not much, it was working out a lot of details for each new material, which I could do. But I decided that I didn't want to do that, so that's how I started into graphite. My first work in graphite was maybe 1961 could have been the end of 1960, but 1961 for sure, and I've been there ever since, as you know. But I got the idea, there were several events - you know you never write about this exactly, so this is history of science - there were several events that happened in 1960 that made this all possible, and for some reason, I happen to know about some of this. In the UK, there was this discovery of how to make HOPG : Highly Oriented Pyrolytic Graphite. To do the experiments that I needed to do with the high magnetic fields we had to have samples that were a little bit bigger than the flakes of graphite that are normally found in nature. So the materials science of this project was worked out in the UK.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;AH : &lt;i&gt;What did they come out of ? Was there an industrial interest in this or what ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;MD : Well, different bases of carbon were interesting in 1960 because that's what I was going to mention to you, the year that diamond was artificially synthesized. So there was interest in the phase diagram of carbon diamond, and perhaps the work of Opaloda [?] in making HOPG was related to it.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;AH : &lt;i&gt;Do you know what the institutional setting was ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;MD : Yes, certainly, that was Imperial College in England, London, and I had occasion to visit him very very soon thereafter because there was a conference. The conference where the Josephson effect was announced, maybe, could have been that one, or could have been one before that. But I happened to be in the UK, and I dropped in at Imperial College and we met at that very early time, but when we met I already had quite a number of results. So we had something to talk about, because otherwise he wouldn't have been that interested in meeting a young person whom he didn't know anything about. So one thing was the material, and the second thing was there was kind of an interest in the field of carbon. Carbon became interesting when it was understood that were different faces... it wasn't only graphite which people had known well people knew diamonds but they didn't know how to go from one to the other, that wasn't really understood.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;BBV : &lt;i&gt;Were they trying to make carbon fibers over there ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;MD : The carbon fiber business came a little later, and my entry into it came later. If you want to go into that, I can, after. But maybe we should talk a little bit how the experiment started because that's never written up any place, so you might find some of that interesting. So all the different carbons that I tried because Raytheon was making carbons for, I don't know, military purposes, and the space program was already starting around that time and carbon was a lightweight material so there was quite a lot of interest. I tried some of their graphites but they didn't work, they just didn't have enough good crystalline quality. To do the experiments that I was after, an electron has to go through a whole cyclotron orbit before being scattered, that was the criteria. So if you have defects, impurities, whatever, that would interfere with that process. So I needed to have a high-quality crystalline material. Maybe a single crystal would be good but it wasn't big enough to get enough signal. I was looking for small defects.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;AH : &lt;i&gt;You're doing a magneto-...&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;MD : Optics, experiment. Well see ! I started out in the beginning doing my first couple of papers were magneto-optics and what other people were doing and that was kind of my learning experience ; and then I took a sidestep and I started another area which people considered too hard so we had virtually no competition because people considered the system too hard. It had a whole bunch of couple bands, four bands, and all people at that time only were thinking about two bands, valence and conduction bands. Anything beyond that was too complicated. So and the experiments could have been tough because it was a materials science problem and all that. But my materials science problem was solved by Opaloda, and there was a fellow at General Electric Laboratory that I found out about in 1960 and he was working in the US with this process of Opaloda. He followed the original work and he made me a sample and the first time we tried it it was beautiful So we were launched. So that might have been the beginning of 1961. We began to get a lot of spectra. Then we tried to figure out what it was that we were seeing. We now had a theory problem. Unfortunately, I don't remember exactly how this happened but when I was a graduate student at the University of Chicago, one of my colleagues, maybe two years older than me, but somebody I knew pretty well, was Joel McClure. He figures into this picture because somehow I made contact with him because he had moved into this graphite area, he wasn't doing that when he was a graduate student, but he became the person that developed the theory for the energy band structure of graphite. So we made contact and I remember him visiting me maybe the fall of 1962, before my third child was born. We were talking about how to deal with the band structure of graphite, explained all the spectrum, and I really got a lot of seminal ideas from him. My husband Gene understood immediately how to translate what he was doing to the experiments that I was doing. We developed a theory, and for our case adapted what McClure had done and extended it to explain the experiment and it worked very well. And so we were able, for the first time at that time to understand many of the details about the electronic structure of graphite. So that was 1962 or so, and I remember publishing a paper the first time this became kind of known on the outside was I was invited to an IBM conference, I don't know exactly the dates of that, but it must have been either late 1962 or early 1963. And that paper is published in the proceedings of the IBM journal. The IBM journal had a special issue for this particular conference and it was my paper on the Fermi surfaces of graphite. So that was one of the very early papers on Fermi surfaces of graphite, and we learned a lot of things. You know that it wasn't just ellipsoids that had more things associated with it and that was, we really did very detailed things with it. And actually what we did, that was interesting and new, and inspired by the work of McClure, but also kind of different as we had some kind of model that is still used today, basically. But it changed - I'll explain all the changes that happened because that's an interesting story for history of science maybe. So we have electrons in holes in graphite, and they were understood at that time and then I... (see every year, science moved slowly in those days relative to now, and I think we wrote a lot of papers on different aspects of this always getting better). Then some time in the mid-1960s, my very first graduate student, Sam Williamson and we did cyclotron resonance and van der Hofstad-Alfven effect, all of those things explaining about the Fermi surface. So we brought to bear all the different experimental techniques we could think of to look at this, and Sam Williamson went on to a very distinguished career. And he has a similar position to what I have at NYU, Institute Professor is my title here [at MIT]. He has similar position, but that was my first student. But his claim to fame isn't this, although his thesis I think was really very good. But he had an interesting career : he went to Rockwell International, got into semiconductor physics, like many of us did and superconductivity after that, and SQUIDS, magnetometers, came in at that time so he learned that technique and he had the idea just around 1970 of using that technique to look at the human brain. That's how he's known, a big name in brain science, using this technique. Yes, but related to what we were doing back, not so far off from what we were doing together in the late 60s. And with my second student after that we went (maybe he was my third student, but it was in very early times), we had the idea that if we took polarized light, doing the experiment in polarized light rather than circularly polarized light, we would be able to look at specific transitions, linear. Electrons go like this and they have different charge, the electron goes this way, the hole goes that way and they rotate in different ways, so we would be able to separate the transitions, and as soon as we did that everything fell apart because what we thought should have been electrons seemed to be holes, and what was holes seemed to be electrons. So this was pretty crazy ! Basically, the result of doing that polarized experiment, we found that everything that had been done on the electronic structure of graphite up until that point was reversed. That the electrons were holes and holes were electrons. Which was very sensible on the basis of fairly elementary considerations. That's why we thought that we were right. So when I submitted my first paper on this subject to the &lt;i&gt;Physical Review&lt;/i&gt;, maybe it was &lt;i&gt;Physical Review Letters&lt;/i&gt;, I don't remember exactly, but one of those journal articles, the reviewer was Joe McClure. And he was an obvious reviewer of this kind of paper, because he is a most knowledgeable person. And he revealed his identity ; they're not supposed to do that, but he revealed his identity. And he told me, &#034;You don't want to publish this, people have been doing for the last twenty years all kinds of work with electrons this and holes that and how could you reverse it ? You must have something wrong with your experiment&#034;. So we checked and we checked and we checked and we said to him that &#034;we think that we're right and if we're wrong, OK, we'll take our chances&#034;. And we went ahead and we published it. And as soon as it came out, the paper came out, we started getting letters and comments from different people. &#034;So this is the explanation of this effect, and this is the explanation of that effect&#034;, and they had all these data in their drawers and they wouldn't publish them because they couldn't understand what was going on. A : The Emperor's New Clothes ! And then when we straightened out the electron/holes everything started fitting into place. And I had the real pleasure, so this is 1968 or so when we discovered that effect. In 1972, or maybe it was 1970, they had an international conference on low dimensional materials in Dallas, TX. And Joel McClure gave the invited talk on semimetals, or graphite semimetals, something like that. And he focused the entire talk on turning the electronic structure of graphite upside down bringing everybody's work, well we had done that also, but he did it on this occasion for everybody, and it was a very nice thing. And at that time, I gave the corresponding talk on the group V semimetals business because we had been working on that as well, in those early days, working out the electonic structure, the relation of all the group V semimetals. So that was kind of that early period when I was in magneto-optics. I was already at MIT because I joined the faculty in 1967. So 1968 when we turned the band structure of graphite upside down was my first year on the faculty.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;AH : &lt;i&gt;I wanted to ask you about the beginnings of the Interdisciplinary Laboratory at MIT. We actually talked to John Goodenough and I asked him if he had anything to do with it and he said &#034;no, no, no, sitting out there at the Lincoln Lab, there was nothing&#034;, and it was almost a hostile atmosphere, they didn't want to have anything to do with him.&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
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&lt;p&gt;MD : Well, I was kind of a part of it. Let me give you a little background. You may have some difficulty but some of the people are still alive. The person who really started all of that was Arthur von Hippel. It's hard to interview him now ; you missed your window with him. He will have his 102nd birthday on the 19th of November [2001]. But he was a big factor in my early life ; he really liked all the things that we were doing. Now, when you're a young faculty member &#8211; a young female faculty member - it's maybe not so easy. But to have people who appreciate what you're doing makes things a lot better. So, he was always a good friend. Of course he escaped from the Nazis and all that. He came to the US. He came here, maybe '36 or '37, many years before me, and he started the Interdisciplinary Laboratory, which grew. They worked on many things, properties of dielectrics. See, we had this common background. That's a little bit how we met in the early times. They had ferroelectrics, piezoelectrics, they were growing crystals of all kinds, and phases of ice. There were a lot of books written. He was a big influence on the early solid-state physics. It's too bad because he was coherent until about five years ago, '97 or '96. He knew everything still. He was with it, but now he doesn't even recognize me. I think this is off-base, but there may be some people who know details about the lab. There's John Gelatis who is a microwave person and worked in this laboratory. He is still alive ; he must be in his 80s. He retired a long time ago. He wasn't really a PhD scientist, but he worked in the lab and might be a useful source. He may be able to tell you some other people who may still be alive. Most of the people that I can think of are no longer with us. There's George Pratt, who is faculty still, who came to MIT before I did and had quite a lot of contact with von Hippel, but I don't think he was a member of the lab per se. And he came after the 60s. In 1960, the Interdisciplinary Lab was formed, that I became Director of, but the origin of the lab goes back to the 1936 period and it evolved with von Hippel and he had different groups doing different things. It was his idea.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;AH : &lt;i&gt;Here at MIT ? The whole idea that materials science was all fields was his and he was ridiculed and took a lot of flak for that. But when the war came, the lab that he had and the people that he had were very much appreciated. That was the way to solve problems. So he got very heavily involved with war work. And he was anxious to be that because he had had such a bad time in Europe. A lot is written about this, I am sure the history books... You can find out a lot about it.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;But you said that when the IDL was set up you were involved.&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;MD : Well, I wasn't involved. The idea was von Hippel's. I came and started working in the lab in 1960. I was working in the High-field [lab] which wasn't on campus. The High-field lab is not at Lincoln Lab. I was an employee of Lincoln Lab and maybe I analyzed some of my data, did some of the calculations, at the Lincoln Lab, but when I was actually doing the experiments I was here. And it was in the basement of Building 4. That basement of Building 4 is still there. I could show you exactly where that whole thing started. But von Hippel was in a different location : that was the Magnet lab. The Magnet Lab was really separate. The Magnet Lab had people doing all different things, so it was very interdisciplinary in the Magnet Lab. The Magnet Lab had, when I started, maybe a handful of people &#8211; we ran our own experiments. In 1962 or maybe 1963, Ben Lax who was my boss got the idea to start something called the national magnet facility and got the funding from the Airforce. They built the building in a bakery over in Albany Street and that became the Magnet lab but the pre-magnet lab, when I worked on it, was in Building 4. When we discovered the magneto-optics of graphite, that was done there, in Building 4.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;AH : &lt;i&gt;With all this interdisciplinarity, I presume you felt like a physicist. So, when the IDL was started with the name of Materials Science &amp; Engineering, did you feel that this was a strange concept ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;MD : No. There were two reasons that I was very much at home in it. When I did my PhD-thesis I did it in an interdisciplinary environment. This will sound very strange to you but I got my degree at the University of Chicago. The laboratory where I had my equipment and where I was actually working was called the Institute of Metals. It had physics, chemistry, and metals. It was Cyril Smith, who was boss of the lab. He was the person I knew. It was totally funded by industry. Have you done any work on Cyril Smith ?&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;AH : &lt;i&gt;No, but we have his books here in the basement &#8211; he bequeathed them to the Burndy Library.&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;BBV : &lt;i&gt;Is he still alive ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;MD : No, no. He died in 1988 or something. He would be a lot older than me.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;AH : &lt;i&gt;He has left his papers to MIT.&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;MD : He had an impact on many things. His wife was an historian and the last 20-30 years of his life he did both history and science. He was a very interdisciplinary guy. He had been in industry and we had an id atmosphere. I didn't have much help doing my thesis but the people that helped me were from different people of all walks of life. I got people who knew how to do machining, vacuum systems, I got chemists. I used all these types of people that I felt comfortable with. So later at the Lincoln Lab we were also solving all kinds of things, and then you need all kinds of people. So I was very comfortable with talking to people, explaining physics principles to them. That was my function. I was brought to MIT as professor to teach physics to engineering students. I had a mentality already. The physicists here didn't want to teach physics to engineering students. They wanted the engineering students to come and take the physics courses exactly as they were doing it. They made no effort to have the physics have any relevance to what they were doing. This was the year of semiconductors and they weren't teaching the physics in any way related to that. When I came Gordon Brown was Dean of Engineering and he had the idea that the engineers missed out on WWII because they didn't know enough physics, and he wanted it changed by having people trained in physics teaching them, in addition to having experience with the engineering side, which I did. That's why I was attractive to them : because I had this dual background and didn't have a prejudice against engineers.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;BBV : &lt;i&gt;Did you adapt your physics course to engineers, and how ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;MD : Oh yes, ever since I have been here I have been teaching physics to engineers. I get physics students who come in also. Over the course of the years the physics department's students have moved towards what I was doing, because physics now has a lot of solid-state whereas when I arrived it had nearly none at all. Ben Lax, my boss, was a member of the physics department and he didn't get along very well with the others on the department, so that wasn't a great help in getting this... But he's still alive. You might want to interview him. And he is in order upstairs. He is still working in the lab.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;AH : &lt;i&gt;Well, we talked to Sam Schweber, who is also working with us on this project, and he has given me an account of the development of physics at Brandeis from theoretical physics asking philosophical questions towards a physics that can be used, towards engineering.&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;MD : They have focused a lot on theory at Brandeis, but the MIT experience was somewhat different, because it was favored a lot by WWII. The Radiation Lab, and also the materials group developed. There was a practical side also here. But it was not in the physics department. There was something in the Physics Department, but it wasn't very much. There was John Slater.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;AH : &lt;i&gt;Would you tell us something about your time as Director ; if it's not jumping too many years.&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;MD : Well that's 1977, so it's jumping a lot. I was the 3rd Director and when I took over the Lab was in big trouble ; it was about to lose its NSF funding. I had to keep the money coming in. That's what a Director has to do. The first Director was from Physics, the second was from Materials Science, and I was from Electrical Engineering. I did get a Chair in 1973 which gave me some independence and also some funds to do what I wanted. That's how the intercalation work started.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;AH : &lt;i&gt;Shall we drop the IDL and turn to the intercalation story ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;BBV : &lt;i&gt;Yes please.&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;MD : My first contact in intercalation physics was Ted Gaballe.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;AH : &lt;i&gt;We have talked to Stan Whittingham, by the way, so we do have that perspective. I don't know whether that helps you.&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;MD : There was no contact between us for a long time so we both entered it very much independently I entered the field my first contact with intercalation physics came in 1965 or maybe 1964.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;BBV : &lt;i&gt;That early ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;MD : It's not written down, so you wouldn't know. But you could verify it. I got into it through a person called Ted Geballe he is a very well known person in this area. I strongly recommend that you talk to him. He is about 10 years older than I am. Because he really knows a huge amount of the early history. He was involved in many, many things in this field he is retired now but works pretty much every day in the lab. He discovered superconductivity in intercalation compounds when you add potassium in an alkaloid metal to graphite, it becomes an intercalation compound and he found that these materials were superconducting That's 1965 or 1964. I think it's referred to in my list [on the web].&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;AH : &lt;i&gt;Yes, it is.&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;MD : Because it was a very important part of my thinking. He knew about my work on the electronic structure of graphite. We hadn't turned it around yet, it was still the old way. But he knew about our magneto-optics work and was sufficiently impressed with that and wanted me to do some kind of experiment that would illuminate what happened to the electronic structure after you made an intercalation compound out of it. Okay ? So that was what he wanted. And he invited me down to Bell Labs and we talked and I listened to what he had to say and I put it somewhere in the back of my mind. I didn't have an idea of what the experiment should be, so I didn't do anything and then in 1970 or 1971, there was a paper by a fellow called Moore (maybe something else) an Englishman, I think also from Imperial College He did the first experiment on the Hausser-Alfven effect in one of the intercalation compounds he showed that you could have cyclotron orbits long enough that you could get magnetic resonance data. When I saw that I knew that if I did an experiment that was similar with what he did with optics it would [?] We tried to make the samples and did the experiment, and I guess our first experiment would have been done about 1973. Because it took me a little while to find out about this paper I didn't see it the day it was published the reason that I mention this Chair is that doing this experiment was that I had this income that I could use for hare-brain experiments and things that maybe you couldn't get funding for. You always try to do an experiment first to make sure that it works before you send off the proposal, because if it's not going to work... I don't want to work there either so you do a little exploratory work - I think everybody does. It's certainly the way we do it. I used a little resources from my Chair to check it out and we got some interesting, encouraging results, so I said well, uh I'll put a student on it to solve it for a season and then of course we had to fund the student with research money so I tried to get money. In my career there have been very few proposals that have not been successful because I am really very modest. I don't ask for money unless I really need it and have a good idea I think that's the reason I have been successful in getting funding but that was one where I was not successful. The comments of the reviewers basically said, that a person with a physics background and my kind of background should not be mucking around with chemistry-related things that were so complicated that we would never understand. So there was a big potential barrier put up by funding agencies. I wasn't able to get anything. And those were the heydays when it was very easy to get money. Maybe I got a tiny little bit of money from the Materials Center, but they said : hush hush, don't tell anybody that you're doing this ! But I believe that as soon we began to get some more results and publications, I think I got my first grant in 77 so it was quite a few years when we were quite unable to get funding. What happened in 1977 was the first conference in intercalation ; the first big conference ever, in southern France, [Lanapour ?]. It's near Nice. Southern Riviera, very nice ! It was a very influential conference it was well attended and had an impact on almost everybody that went there. It revealed what was going on in intercalation physics and chemistry, it was mostly chemistry.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;BBV : &lt;i&gt;Who was the organizer ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;MD : Jack Fischer and somebody called Vogel whom you probably don't know he dropped out, he had a company he dropped out of the whole business five years after. He was an influential person in making it all happen maybe not so much for the science.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;AH : &lt;i&gt;I am sure Stan Whittingham was there ? You must have met him there ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;MD : Yes well, we could look back and find out. I believe he was there and there were people from all over the place that was the very first time that I met any of these people - total news for me.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;AH : &lt;i&gt;Because they were chemists ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;MD : No, almost everybody was new to the field. I'd been there much longer, but nobody knew I was there. Publishing in all these different journals there was no connection and listening to all the things they said ; then I knew what to do. You know, it had a big scientific impact and we came back to MIT and we started working in all the areas. I all of a sudden had a really good picture of what was going on in the field and then my students had a very hard time understanding what was going on in the field and I wrote an article now that article must have started about 1978 or very early 1979 ; I must have been Director of the Materials Center at the time, right ? Because 1977, when I went to Lanapour I must already have been Director because I am just figuring out the dates here - so anyway.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;BBV : &lt;i&gt;So you wrote this article.&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;MD : You know it takes a while to write these articles. Okay, so the article has a lot that should go like this, and it turned out that it should go like this is the way much of this did go. So that article is still referred to now, if somebody wants to look at the article on intercalation compound they often go to that ancient article that was written very early in the time of the field. Because of that, I was asked to do a similar thing for fullerenes, that's my big black book on fullerenes, and that came from Bell Labs researchers who felt that my pedagogic style was useful for researchers. And I guess they said, &#034;I'm an old lady now, it's ok if I spend a few years studying everything that's been done in the field and digesting it and telling students what to do&#034;. But I'd done another one on carbon fibers, since you asked about carbon fibers, I did that one many years earlier.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;BBV : &lt;i&gt;So you suggest that this kind of review articles take a lot of time.&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;MD : They take a lot of time.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;BBV : &lt;i&gt;They are very useful to shape a discipline.&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;MD : Yes, and I had the opportunity to shape a few fields in this way. And the first one was the intercalation, you know at the time I was doing it, I of course had no idea that it was going to affect other people, I did it for my own students because they were working across such disparate areas and it was hard for them to figure out what it is that we were really doing. Because there's a lot of interdisciplinary research, and somebody's doing X-rays, someone's doing magnets, and another ones doing optics or infrared. Many many different things, and so they had to learn the field that they were doing, they learned the techniques and so forth, and they had to learn intercalation physics and see how it goes together and how it goes together with all the other guys. So having the review article helped a lot and it helped them in writing chapter one of their thesis too. So I found out how useful that was and that encouraged me to write more things like that later on. We were in intercalation physics until roughly 1990. I did a couple more things later on with with fast optics. We did some kind of elegant work.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;BBV : &lt;i&gt;And why did you stop ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;MD : Why did I stop ? Because I got into fullerenes and nanotubes, and their behavior too. It wasn't that ... I didn't have so many ideas, we'd done so many things already, the field had become mature as a result of other people who'd moved in, moved out. But I moved somewhere else and I, everybody's finite, you can't work on everything.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;BBV : &lt;i&gt;Do you have students who went, or are working on intercalation compounds because they need the technique ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;MD : No, not really, not really, let me explain about that. Maybe when you interview other people on the project, the ground rules are different. I'm at MIT and the expectation of the graduate student here is that they develop a new field, basically. So when I give a thesis topic, we develop some kind of thesis topic, every thesis I try to make like they're breaking some really new ground. There's a finite number of things that you could do. So maybe one thesis was on the structural properties of intercalation and we got into some interesting things with electron diffraction and we could do the surfaces. And then Raman processes. But after I finished all of those forays, big things, then I moved to something else. Okay ?&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;BBV : &lt;i&gt;So you moved to fullerenes.&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;MD : Yeah, well I saw fullerenes as opening up totally new areas so and it's something I could understand in depth because it's only graphite that's rolled up in a scroll, I already knew about that. When I select topics, you know people always ask me, &#034;How do you know what to work on ?&#034; This is graduate students, so I say : you want to work on something new that people don't know much about, and so you take your chances, maybe it will develop into something, maybe it won't. But if it does, then you have a chance at doing something that's really quite new. Otherwise, you're just doing the same thing as somebody else did, and that's not really an MIT PhD. Being a thesis advisor here, I'm a little bit limited, sometimes I have some ideas, oh it'd be nice to do this and this, but that's just an extension of what somebody else did, and that's not appropriate for a PhD thesis. So you asked me about why I got out of intercalation physics. Well I didn't have ideas that were big enough and it's hard to find, when you get to the point where the field is mature, it's hard to find these kinds of good ideas.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;BBV : &lt;i&gt;And just one more question about intercalation compounds, did you have contacts with the French people in Nantes, Rouxel...?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;MD : Oh yes, oh yes, I did. Yes. And in fact, still. I was with Rouxel two months before he died. We had an interview with the French TV, the two of us together I don't know, we had some kind of interview, it was in Nantes. They had a conference and somehow they sort of took me one day some place, and he was there, I was with him because he had ... Yes, the French, now I see why you're interested in intercalation physics, and chemistry in fact, is not sort of spread around the globe. There are few countries, the US was a player, for a while it was a big player, but only for a short time. France was working on it long before the US, we had one person here that was at Argonne National Lab who passed away, dear heart, I've just forgotten. But he was the big person, he was a giant in the field, but he was working in isolation. He passed away in 1965 approximately. He was originally from Europe, maybe came during World War II, or because of World War II, something like that. The French were very big, and the Germans were somewhat into it, but not as big as the French. And then the Japanese entered later and stayed longer. They're still there. And they were the ones that really started the battery business or aspects of the battery business in a big way. I think they had some of the very early patents on them.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;BBV : &lt;i&gt;Yes, on intercalation compounds. The French are not much interested in industrial applications.&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;MD : Well, yes, that's right, but the Japanese companies have pursued that. It was the first patent, I think in 1972 and well I remember that.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;BBV : &lt;i&gt;One question I would like to ask you because you give a lot of collaboration with the Japanese. Carbon fiber.&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;MD : Yes, oh you want to know that ? Well that happened because of intercalation. In 1980, there were some important collaborations in my career. The first one was not with carbon fibers, it was with Jean Paul [Lycee ?]. And that happened in 1970, we were in Dallas, TX, for this conference that I told you Joe McClure explained about the band structure of graphite and I was explaining about the group five semimetals. Well, they had the conference, it was a very small conference, and that evening, one of the evenings of the conference I went to a concert and I was on a bus going from the conference site to wherever the concert was. And on this bus was Jean Paul Lycee. And I had my badge and he had his badge. We were the only people on the bus with the badges. So I walked over and I introduced myself, I was older than him by a few years. It was okay to approach him I thought, and he of course knew who I was, but didn't know me. That was how we met, and then we started talking about our science. At that time he was working on bismuth, or antimony or something like that, and so I heard what he was doing, and I said, &#034;Oh I know about that, and I know about that&#034; and we started working together and we're still working. I just had something from him yesterday, so we're still working together.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;BBV : &lt;i&gt;You have been working together on different topics ?&lt;/i&gt;&lt;br class='autobr' /&gt;
&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;MD : Oh, we worked on many many topics, we must have a hundred joint papers. But it started on that bus, going to the concert. And that was the beginning of, later on, twenty years later, of low dimensional thermal electricity that came from that meeting because I don't know if that would have happened otherwise. Because we had a dinner party and he invited somebody from France to meet me, and wanted to talk about the, the French navy wanted to know something about thermoelectrics, they had a guy from the ministry that came, and that conversation started the field, so, interesting thing, but I've written that out for the conference proceedings. Did I cover what you wanted on Endo ? Yes, let me tell you about Endo, because he started... 1970 was EC. We met at a conference. And 1980 I met Endo at another conference, and that was the second conference on intercalation physics. The first one was in France in [Lanapour ?], and the second one was in Provincetown, Massachusetts. And he came to that conference, and I was absolutely blown away by his talk on carbon fibers, it was nothing intercalation, well maybe he had intercalated by that time. But what I saw was that he could make these very long thin things and I said that those would be wonderful agents to do transport measurements. I just saw this vision when I heard his talk of all the things that we could do with those samples. And I didn't know that these things existed until that day. And I went up to him and I said, &#034;I just loved your talk. Wonderful ! And we should do an experiment together&#034;, I said something like that, and we've been working ever since. So we have many papers too. Yes, but my collaboration with the Japanese is much older than Endo. Endo was not my first Japanese collaborator. But he's my first sort of applied. He's in applied areas, the other people that I worked with before are in more fundamental physics areas.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;BBV : &lt;i&gt;And when you have collaborated with Belgians and Japanese, would you say that you noticed different national styles in the field of intercalation ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;MD : Well, yes, there's national styles but there's personal styles too. Yes, not every Japanese is like every other Japanese and not every Frenchman&#8230; and Jean Paul Lycee is originally from Alexandria. He was born in Alexandria, Egypt, so I'm not sure he's exactly a typical Belgian either. So maybe he is, maybe he isn't.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;BBV : &lt;i&gt;It's much more personal ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;MD : Well, you know science is a universal language, so we can relate to everybody doing our science ; it breaks down all barriers. When I was doing something, I was president of AAAS and I was advocating with Madeline Albright the importance of the state department, this is the US state department, it should have scientific attaches at as many embassies as possible, because that was a ground where Americans at least would be respected and could talk to people. Rather than being hated and staking the battle on military operations. Think about things we could do together, we could, amount this crazy war on terrorism but maybe if we had a way to work with the populations that are disadvantaged, all the money that's spent on the bombs were spent on food, and improving people's living standards, maybe we would be much better off in the end.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;BBV : &lt;i&gt;So you still think that science wins peace among the people.&lt;/i&gt; &lt;br class='autobr' /&gt;
&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;MD : Well it also brings war, all these tools for more destruction than ever before. So it's kind of a double, science has to be used in the right way too. Well I think we're all getting tired, and we have other things to do, maybe we could get together another time after you get a chance to look at what you have, and what you still need.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;BBV : &lt;i&gt;Yes, you can go and have a look on the site.&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;MD : Here ? Oh I used to be an advisor, I was on the board here in the institute for two full terms. I was here doing my thing until I started working for the US government, you know I was working for the Department of Energy. So I had to relinquish everything I was doing in the private sector.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;AH : &lt;i&gt;Why did you participate here [at the Dibner Institute] ? Why are you interested in history of science ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;MD : Well I was always interested in the History of Science and well I knew so many of these people, I was a student of Fermi, I just gave a talk for Fermi, on being a teacher and well so I gave the talk and I thought I had such interesting material it wasn't scholarly in the sense that I did a lot of research about Fermi but I just told stories that I knew. And I thought maybe someone would invite me to write an article on it because I thought it was, maybe, a little bit unique perspective, I just gave my talk, if people liked it, maybe they would record it, and that's it.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;AH : &lt;i&gt;So why don't you write it ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;MD : Well I don't have enough time. I always do things when I'm invited. You know how it is, we're pretty busy individuals. Well I have been interested in science and I've known just, you know when I started science was so small, everybody knew everybody. I'm talking about my student years, it was just handfuls of people. This wasn't like today, two orders or magnitude smaller. So many of the people that you're interested in, I knew them. Maybe most of them. In one way or another, our paths crossed. Even if we didn't write papers together, maybe we had some influence. But you know when I, I didn't realize it was Dibner, nobody tells me E56, they say Dibner Institute, I say, Oh okay I know that place. I've been here many times.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;BBV : &lt;i&gt;Do you think that you could help us to make contact with the Japanese materials scientists because we would like to have a case study of the US, and a case study on France.&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;MD : Are you willing to go over there ?&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;BBV : &lt;i&gt;Yes we would go to interview people in Japan. For that we would need introductions. So if you could be kind enough to give us a number of names and contacts it would be really helpful for us, because it's very difficult, we cannot just come and say.&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;AH : &lt;i&gt;Japan requires special entry.&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;MD : Okay, I'm very well known in Japan.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;BBV : &lt;i&gt;Especially in carbon fiber, because it is the topic we would like to investigate and you know everybody in the field.&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;MD : I do, well I don't, I wouldn't say I know everybody : I know a lot of people. I think that the book I wrote maybe was helpful. That book is out of print now, they want me to do a second edition. No time. But I'll do it, I'll do it. Carbon nanotubes are so exciting now that I'm- I don't have the time to write a book like the one I did the first time. It needs to go back in the literature for twenty years, I haven't been involved in everybody's doing, just what I'm interested in. Write a book it's a little different, you have to do the scholarly stuff. When nanotubes subside a little bit maybe it's a good time for me, basically if anybody's still interested. Well I'd be happy, what's your time scale ?&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;BBV : &lt;i&gt;I'm leaving on Sunday but Arne is still here.&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;AH : &lt;i&gt;To go to Japan, we were thinking the first half of 2002.&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;BBV : &lt;i&gt;Sometime in there.&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;MD : Well, I'll get Endo, I'm going to see him in two week, I'm going to his lab he runs me ragged, he brings me to lecture in two different places in one day and that's my regular schedule there, it's kind of unbelievable because it's long distances and running around, very tiring, and you can't and every lecture is on a different subject of course.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;BBV : &lt;i&gt;But you can write on the train.&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;MD : (&lt;i&gt;laughter&lt;/i&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;AH : &lt;i&gt;Well thank you very much !&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;BBV : &lt;i&gt;It was really very rich for us.&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;MD : I'm not exactly sure what you're after so you'll have to sort of tell us a little bit.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;i&gt;Fin de l'enregistrement&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;hr class=&#034;spip&#034; /&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Pour citer l'entretien :&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&#171; Entretien avec Mildred Dresselhaus &#187;, par Bernadette Bensaude-Vincent et Arne Hessenbruch, 25 octobre 2001, &lt;i&gt;Sciences : histoire orale&lt;/i&gt;, &lt;a href='https://www.sho.espci.fr/spip.php?article82' class=&#034;spip_in&#034;&gt;/spip.php ?article82&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
		&lt;div class='rss_ps'&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Pour citer l'entretien :&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&#171; Entretien avec Mildred Dresselhaus &#187;, par Bernadette Bensaude-Vincent et Arne Hessenbruch, 25 octobre 2001, &lt;i&gt;Sciences : histoire orale&lt;/i&gt;, &lt;a href='https://www.sho.espci.fr/spip.php?article82' class=&#034;spip_in&#034;&gt;https://sho.spip.espci.fr/spip.php?article82&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Lieu : &lt;i&gt;Dibner Institute&lt;/i&gt;, MIT, USA.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Support : enregistrement sur cassette.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href='https://www.sho.espci.fr/spip.php?article72' class=&#034;spip_in&#034;&gt;Transcription&lt;/a&gt; : &lt;a href='https://www.sho.espci.fr/spip.php?article7' class=&#034;spip_in&#034;&gt;Bernadette Bensaude-Vincent&lt;/a&gt;, Helena Fu, Arne Hessenbruch.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&#201;dition en ligne : &lt;a href='https://www.sho.espci.fr/spip.php?article79' class=&#034;spip_in&#034;&gt;Sophie Jourdin&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href='https://www.sho.espci.fr/spip.php?article6' class=&#034;spip_in&#034;&gt;Sacha Loeve&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;hr class=&#034;spip&#034; /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
		</content:encoded>


		

	</item>
<item xml:lang="fr">
		<title>ARRIBART Herv&#233;, 2001-02-19, 05-29, 02-20</title>
		<link>https://www.sho.espci.fr/spip.php?article47</link>
		<guid isPermaLink="true">https://www.sho.espci.fr/spip.php?article47</guid>
		<dc:date>2011-06-16T07:31:17Z</dc:date>
		<dc:format>text/html</dc:format>
		<dc:language>fr</dc:language>
		<dc:creator>Sophie Jourdin</dc:creator>


		<dc:subject>microscope &#224; effet tunnel (STM)</dc:subject>
		<dc:subject>microscopie en champ proche</dc:subject>
		<dc:subject>microscope &#224; force atomique (AFM)</dc:subject>
		<dc:subject>science des surfaces</dc:subject>
		<dc:subject>&#233;lectrochimie</dc:subject>
		<dc:subject>diffraction des &#233;lectrons lents (LEED)</dc:subject>
		<dc:subject>Binnig, Gerd K.</dc:subject>
		<dc:subject>spectroscopie des pertes d'&#233;nergie (EELS)</dc:subject>
		<dc:subject>chimie du solide</dc:subject>
		<dc:subject>Whittingham, Stanley</dc:subject>
		<dc:subject>Rouxel, Jean</dc:subject>
		<dc:subject>solid state ionics</dc:subject>
		<dc:subject> [SIGLES UTILIS&#201;S]</dc:subject>
		<dc:subject>physique du solide</dc:subject>
		<dc:subject>Rohrer, Heinrich</dc:subject>
		<dc:subject>polym&#232;res</dc:subject>
		<dc:subject>spectroscopie de photo&#233;lectrons induits par rayons X (XPS) </dc:subject>
		<dc:subject>Friedel, Jacques </dc:subject>
		<dc:subject>Weisbuch, Claude</dc:subject>
		<dc:subject>adh&#233;sion</dc:subject>
		<dc:subject>Sapoval, Bernard</dc:subject>
		<dc:subject>De Gennes, Pierre-Gilles</dc:subject>
		<dc:subject>Quate, Calvin</dc:subject>
		<dc:subject>Hansma, Paul</dc:subject>
		<dc:subject>Salvan, Frank</dc:subject>
		<dc:subject>Humbert, Alain</dc:subject>
		<dc:subject>Elings, Virgil</dc:subject>
		<dc:subject>Gimzewski, James K.</dc:subject>
		<dc:subject>&#201;cole polytechnique</dc:subject>
		<dc:subject>Digital instruments (DI)</dc:subject>
		<dc:subject>Centre national de la recherche scientifique (CNRS)</dc:subject>
		<dc:subject>Rh&#244;ne-Poulenc</dc:subject>
		<dc:subject>IBM Zurich</dc:subject>
		<dc:subject>Saint-Gobain recherche</dc:subject>
		<dc:subject>Stanford linear accelerator center (SLAC)</dc:subject>
		<dc:subject>Institut des mat&#233;riaux de Nantes (IMN)</dc:subject>
		<dc:subject>Park scientific instruments </dc:subject>
		<dc:subject>&#233;lectrons polaris&#233;s en spin </dc:subject>
		<dc:subject>Ion sensitive field effect transistor (ISFET) </dc:subject>
		<dc:subject>verre</dc:subject>
		<dc:subject>polym&#232;res adh&#233;sifs</dc:subject>
		<dc:subject>spintronique</dc:subject>
		<dc:subject>surface force apparatus (SFA)</dc:subject>
		<dc:subject>r&#233;sonance magn&#233;tique nucl&#233;aire (NMR)</dc:subject>
		<dc:subject>spectroscopie infrarouge</dc:subject>
		<dc:subject>profilom&#232;tre</dc:subject>
		<dc:subject>microscope &#224; effet tunnel de photons (PSTM)</dc:subject>

		<description>
&lt;p&gt;Herv&#233; Arribart is the Scientific Director of Saint-Gobain Recherche, an international company of French origin with an emphasis on glass manufacture. He took his PhD from the Ecole Polytechnique in Paris in the mid-1970s and subsequently researched ionic transport using nuclear magnetic resonance. In the late 1970s he worked with Jean Rouxel's group at the University of Nantes. In 1981 he joined the company Elf to work in research and development. In 1985 he moved to Saint-Gobain, where at (&#8230;)&lt;/p&gt;


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&lt;a href="https://www.sho.espci.fr/spip.php?mot16" rel="tag"&gt;spectroscopie des pertes d'&#233;nergie (EELS)&lt;/a&gt;, 
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&lt;a href="https://www.sho.espci.fr/spip.php?mot51" rel="tag"&gt; [SIGLES UTILIS&#201;S]&lt;/a&gt;, 
&lt;a href="https://www.sho.espci.fr/spip.php?mot52" rel="tag"&gt;physique du solide&lt;/a&gt;, 
&lt;a href="https://www.sho.espci.fr/spip.php?mot60" rel="tag"&gt;Rohrer, Heinrich&lt;/a&gt;, 
&lt;a href="https://www.sho.espci.fr/spip.php?mot108" rel="tag"&gt;polym&#232;res&lt;/a&gt;, 
&lt;a href="https://www.sho.espci.fr/spip.php?mot112" rel="tag"&gt;spectroscopie de photo&#233;lectrons induits par rayons X (XPS) &lt;/a&gt;, 
&lt;a href="https://www.sho.espci.fr/spip.php?mot113" rel="tag"&gt;Friedel, Jacques &lt;/a&gt;, 
&lt;a href="https://www.sho.espci.fr/spip.php?mot114" rel="tag"&gt;Weisbuch, Claude&lt;/a&gt;, 
&lt;a href="https://www.sho.espci.fr/spip.php?mot115" rel="tag"&gt;adh&#233;sion&lt;/a&gt;, 
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&lt;a href="https://www.sho.espci.fr/spip.php?mot117" rel="tag"&gt;De Gennes, Pierre-Gilles&lt;/a&gt;, 
&lt;a href="https://www.sho.espci.fr/spip.php?mot118" rel="tag"&gt;Quate, Calvin&lt;/a&gt;, 
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&lt;a href="https://www.sho.espci.fr/spip.php?mot122" rel="tag"&gt;Humbert, Alain&lt;/a&gt;, 
&lt;a href="https://www.sho.espci.fr/spip.php?mot123" rel="tag"&gt;Elings, Virgil&lt;/a&gt;, 
&lt;a href="https://www.sho.espci.fr/spip.php?mot124" rel="tag"&gt;Gimzewski, James K.&lt;/a&gt;, 
&lt;a href="https://www.sho.espci.fr/spip.php?mot125" rel="tag"&gt;&#201;cole polytechnique&lt;/a&gt;, 
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&lt;a href="https://www.sho.espci.fr/spip.php?mot135" rel="tag"&gt;IBM Zurich&lt;/a&gt;, 
&lt;a href="https://www.sho.espci.fr/spip.php?mot136" rel="tag"&gt;Saint-Gobain recherche&lt;/a&gt;, 
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&lt;a href="https://www.sho.espci.fr/spip.php?mot140" rel="tag"&gt;&#233;lectrons polaris&#233;s en spin &lt;/a&gt;, 
&lt;a href="https://www.sho.espci.fr/spip.php?mot141" rel="tag"&gt;Ion sensitive field effect transistor (ISFET) &lt;/a&gt;, 
&lt;a href="https://www.sho.espci.fr/spip.php?mot142" rel="tag"&gt;verre&lt;/a&gt;, 
&lt;a href="https://www.sho.espci.fr/spip.php?mot143" rel="tag"&gt;polym&#232;res adh&#233;sifs&lt;/a&gt;, 
&lt;a href="https://www.sho.espci.fr/spip.php?mot144" rel="tag"&gt;spintronique&lt;/a&gt;, 
&lt;a href="https://www.sho.espci.fr/spip.php?mot145" rel="tag"&gt;surface force apparatus (SFA)&lt;/a&gt;, 
&lt;a href="https://www.sho.espci.fr/spip.php?mot146" rel="tag"&gt;r&#233;sonance magn&#233;tique nucl&#233;aire (NMR)&lt;/a&gt;, 
&lt;a href="https://www.sho.espci.fr/spip.php?mot147" rel="tag"&gt;spectroscopie infrarouge&lt;/a&gt;, 
&lt;a href="https://www.sho.espci.fr/spip.php?mot148" rel="tag"&gt;profilom&#232;tre&lt;/a&gt;, 
&lt;a href="https://www.sho.espci.fr/spip.php?mot149" rel="tag"&gt;microscope &#224; effet tunnel de photons (PSTM)&lt;/a&gt;

		</description>


 <content:encoded>&lt;div class='rss_chapo'&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;csfoo htmla&#034;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span class='spip_document_149 spip_documents spip_documents_right' style='float:right;'&gt;
&lt;img src='https://www.sho.espci.fr/sites/www.sho.espci.fr/IMG/jpg/Arribart-fig1-bio.jpg' width=&#034;320&#034; height=&#034;240&#034; alt=&#034;&#034; /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;csfoo htmlb&#034;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br class='autobr' /&gt;
&lt;strong&gt;Herv&#233; Arribart&lt;/strong&gt; is the Scientific Director of &lt;a href=&#034;http://www.saint-gobain-recherche.fr/en/&#034; class=&#034;spip_out&#034; rel=&#034;external&#034;&gt;Saint-Gobain Recherche&lt;/a&gt;, an international company of French origin with an emphasis on glass manufacture. He took his PhD from the &lt;a href=&#034;http://www.polytechnique.edu/jsp/accueil.jsp?CODE=36392593&amp;LANGUE=1&#034; class=&#034;spip_out&#034; rel=&#034;external&#034;&gt;Ecole Polytechnique&lt;/a&gt; in Paris in the mid-1970s and subsequently researched ionic transport using nuclear magnetic resonance. In the late 1970s he worked with &lt;a href=&#034;http://www.cnrs-imn.fr&#034; class=&#034;spip_out&#034; rel=&#034;external&#034;&gt;Jean Rouxel's group&lt;/a&gt; at the &lt;a href=&#034;http://www.univ-nantes.fr&#034; class=&#034;spip_out&#034; rel=&#034;external&#034;&gt;University of Nantes&lt;/a&gt;. In 1981 he joined the company Elf to work in research and development. In 1985 he moved to Saint-Gobain, where at first a large portion of his research was closely related to the practical problems of production. In 1990 he started a laboratory (a joint venture of Saint-Gobain and the &lt;a href=&#034;http://www.cnrs.fr/index.php&#034; class=&#034;spip_out&#034; rel=&#034;external&#034;&gt;CNRS&lt;/a&gt;) on the basic science of glass surfaces, using a diverse set of tools and especially the Atomic Force Microscope. In 1999 he moved to the more managerial position of Scientific Director. Herv&#233; is also on the staff of this project.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
		&lt;div class='rss_texte'&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;2001-02-19 :&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;HERVE ARRIBART (HA) :&lt;/strong&gt; I studied at the &#201;cole Polytechnique in Paris. The selection to the school is done mainly on mathematics. But during my studies I learnt to appreciate physics in particular. I decided to pursue research in solid-state physics. It was a good place to study physics. While in my last year as an undergraduate I did a Diplome d'&#201;tude Approfondie in parallel (an intermediary between an M.Sc. and a PhD typically done for a year before starting one's PhD studies). In Orsay, near the &#201;cole Polytechnique, there is a very famous place in solid state physics, a lab started by Jacques Friedel - a great name in solid-state physics. I followed this course and afterwards I did the PhD at the &#201;cole Polytechnique in the field of condensed matter physics. In principle I ought to have started with a topic distant from materials science. I extracted spin-polarized electrons from semiconductors. This was in 1974.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;ARNE HESSENBRUCH (AH) : &lt;i&gt;How did one extract spin-polarized electrons in 1974 ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;HA : It is true of all solids, but in semiconductors it is especially interesting that when light falls upon a surface there is a coupling between the spin of photons (in classical physics : the polarization of light) and the spin of electrons. Electrons in the upper layer absorb light photons depending upon the spin. If by some technique you can extract electrons from the conduction band of the semiconductor, you can find ways to select electrons of specific spins. This was quite important at the time because at big-science institutions such as LEP [Large Electron Positron collider] or SLAC [Stanford Linear Accelerator Center], there was a need for spin-polarized electrons. And of course you then needed solid-state physics to do it. But the man who in principle was my supervisor decided to do something else. His name is Claude Weisbuch, and he is now a good friend of mine. For a few years he was the scientific director of the French Department of Defense. He is still working in solid-state physics, in the optics of semiconductors. But he decided to do something else and Bernard Sapoval, another professor at the lab, proposed that I work on new materials. At that time there was little contact between solid-state physics and solid-state chemistry. The idea was to link up with chemists. This is why very early on in my career I had contact with chemists. We worked with Parisian solid state chemists on a new material. We found a new way to draw single crystals of an already existing material. It was very nice because we could examine transport and NMR phenomena. And the material, a copper vanadium sulfide exhibited astonishing properties : a large spread of conductivity that one can measure in a standard experiment. We suspected that this was due to mixed conduction properties. Mixed conductivity refers to conductivity by both electrons and ions. The experiment appeared to verify our a priori suspicion. This gave me the possibility to present a model for mixed conduction in this material and to understand the influence of ion transport and electron transport. I also used NMR in order to understand which ions moved. It turned out that the copper ions moved. So, this was the subject of my first thesis. At the time, in France, there were two theses. The first one was called &#034;th&#232;se de troisi&#232;me cycle&#034;. The second was the &#034;Docteur es sciences&#034;. This degree does not exist any longer. The thesis that is done now is shorter.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;I decided to continue to work with chemists. I decided to combine NMR and transport measurements. I changed my collaborators, turning to two different groups. In my PhD there had been two chapters on NMR. But I wanted to study proton transport. I had two reasons. One was that protons give a strong NMR signal. The second reason was that two reasons had been given for proton transport. In one, protons move in individual jumps. In the other the proton is a part of a more complex molecule such as the ammonium ion (NH4+) or hydroxonium (H30+). In the former case we can see the transport phenomenon as a result of molecule rotation and proton jump. The molecule would turn and the proton jumps to the neighboring molecule, which again turns and so on. This was called the rotation-jump model. The second model was for the whole complex ion to jump. This was called the vehicle model because the whole molecule acts as a vehicle. So I worked with one group of chemists in Nantes, at the Institut de Mat&#233;riaux de l'Universit&#233; de Nantes. It had just been created by Jean Rouxel, a chemist. With them I worked on a substance called antimony acid - a solid. I was able to show using NMR that transport occurred in this case with rotation-jump. Protons used H30+ as a complex rotator. I was also able to show that the jump was due to quantum mechanics within a certain temperature range. It was not the usual ion transport of classical mechanics.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;AH : &lt;i&gt;A tunneling effect ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;HA : Yes, this is one aspect of protons, because protons are very light ions allowing for this quantum effect. The other material I studied was ammonium beta alumina. This was the standard beta aluminium in which the sodium had been ion exchanged with ammonium. This material was very interesting from the perspective of NMR. All kinds of ionic motion took place at different temperatures. At the lowest temperatures, that of liquid helium (1-4K), there was rotational quantum motion. As the temperature increases the motion becomes classical.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;AH : &lt;i&gt;If I may make a comparison with Stanley Whittingham here. You were working on some of the same materials, you were using some of the same tools (NMR), but you were asking very different questions, right ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;HA : Yes, that is true. I was not at all involved in the application. For two reasons : French chemists were interested in materials and did not look to the application. And chemists were between me and the application, so I had no contact with attitudes such as Whittingham's. I was very happy working on the solid-state physics problems.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;AH : &lt;i&gt;And we are talking about the late 1970s now ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;HA : Yes, I began the proton transport research, I think, in 1976.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;AH : &lt;i&gt;And it went on for how long ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;HA : For five or six years.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;AH : &lt;i&gt;And you lived in Nantes ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;HA : No, I remained in Paris while collaborating with the Nantes group.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;AH : &lt;i&gt;Were you employed in Nantes ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;HA : No, not at all. At the beginning I was employed at the Ecole Polytechnique as a research assistant, and then I was hired by the CNRS - in 1977.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;AH : &lt;i&gt;So, the CNRS paid your salary, you were able to do basically whatever you wanted, and you collaborated with Jean Rouxel and coworkers because you found it interesting ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;HA : Yes. It was a chance to work with an outstanding chemist. French chemists were really very good. The problem, as we just said, was that there was little interest in application.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;AH : &lt;i&gt;What did you do next ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;HA : After my PhD thesis, I found it interesting to go to industry.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;AH : &lt;i&gt;I imagine that there were many advantages and disadvantages to leaving academia for industry. For instance, where was status greater, what paid better, where were working conditions better ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;HA : First of all, it was rare, even more so than today, for CNRS people, or people within the public system, to go to industry. I cannot give you a clear answer about my motivation - it was not even clear to myself at the time. I did get a higher salary in industry. I also had personal reasons for leaving Paris and going to the Elf company. I went to an Elf research lab in the Southwest of France, in a very nice place in the Pyr&#233;n&#233;es. I had small children at the time and it was much better for them to grow up in the countryside and in a very nice climate. I was also curious. So the decision involved many elements. And anyway, it was not irreversible. The CNRS allowed me to take a three-year leave after which I could have gone back. With regard to the working conditions : I was of course less free than I had been at the CNRS, but I found it more stimulating because there were a lot of different problems on the horizon, arriving almost every day. We could easily get the necessary equipment at the CNRS and at Elf, so there were no differences there.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;AH : &lt;i&gt;The restrictions at Elf had to do with what you were allowed to study ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;HA : Yes.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;AH : &lt;i&gt;What did Elf want you to do ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;HA : In principle I was hired to work on solid-state sensors. Because it was not in the direct line of my previous work I proposed that I work on solid-state sensors and ion conduction. We developed a family of sensors named ISFETs (Ion Sensitive Field Effect Transistors). It was a new kind of transistor at the time but now it is very common. You control the electrode using field effects, opening and closing the circuit between the two other electrodes. This is the way the transistor works. My idea - not an original one - was to replace this way of controlling the electrode, the gate, to replace it with a membrane, selective to such and such an ion. If you put the device in a solution containing the ion for which you have designed the system, the membrane will be charged. This charge will change the state of the solid-state transistor. It worked all right for protons. We could use the device to measure pH and afterwards we just had to change the nature of the membrane, choosing a different solid electrolyte, such as calcium fluoride.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;AH : &lt;i&gt;Your toolkit remained the same and you still used NMR ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;HA : Not NMR, but yes. You need large samples in order to do NMR. So it was mainly electrochemistry and surface analysis. This was between 1982 and 1985. But as I told you, in industry new projects can arrive almost every day. I had developed some skills in electronics using instrumentation at the &#201;cole Polytechnique. Elf applied for a patent for a medical analysis system, a small instrument to be sold to private practitioners, as opposed to hospitals. This had nothing to do with solid-state ionics. But the people working on this project needed someone who knew about electronics, and so I got progressively more involved. After one or two years it had become my main project. This worked very well. I was very proud to design an electronic system that required no manual setting. It was set in the factory forever. This was a critical issue, because we thought that doctors could not be expected to deal with electronics - and I am sure that we were right in this. So there was nothing to check or calibrate - the system was self-calibrating. So it worked very well, and after only two or three years Elf built a plant and people were hired. But in 1984 and 1985 there were big changes in chemistry. And there was a great redistribution of all chemical industries. And Elf, that had been an oil company, in this period expanded to become also a chemical company. As a result a lot of the more diversified lines of business lost in importance. Many projects like ours were discontinued. But because we were already quite advanced we found a way to keep going. In fact it was Dupont de Nemours that found that our system was complimentary to some of theirs. The result was that Elf shipped the patent and everything else to Dupont. For a few months I considered following the project to Dupont and to the United States. In the end I decided against. I still wanted to work in solid-state physics and not to work completely in the instrument making business. But for one or two years I continued as a consultant.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;2000-05-29 :&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;HA : For both personal and professional reasons, I decided to stay in Paris, and then Saint-Gobain offered me a position, working in a new research field : polymer adhesion on glass and other materials. It was a new topic for me too. At the time adhesion was not even considered a science. It was before Pierre-Gilles de Gennes's Nobel Prize in polymer adhesion [1991]. It was rather considered an art. Even though I had no background in the field I was interested. What interested me in the Saint-Gobain proposal was that real breakthroughs were to be expected in the science of adhesion when two materials are brought into contact. In fact this was my first real industrial experience. Of course CNRS had not been an industrial experience at all, and even at Elf I was always in the research lab. As I explained, my work at Elf had nothing to do with the industrial activities. I never visited factories. At Saint-Gobain I had to do this, at least in the beginning.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;AH : &lt;i&gt;Did you not say that your development of the medical analysis system resulted in the setting up of a plant ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;HA : Yes. I did participate in the design of the plan, in order to make it efficient. But I had no role in the plant itself after construction. It was also a small plant for high-tech activity.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;AH : &lt;i&gt;You had nothing to do with the fabrication side of it, situated in the plant &#8211; merely the R&amp;D before the plant became functional ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;HA : Yes, exactly. Saint-Gobain of course has many plants all over France and Europe, and even the United States. But at that time, the company was still franco-fran&#231;ais [French through and through] in its general spirit and culture, despite the many factories in other countries. There were only French directors and the system was based on the French system of education. There is a hierarchy from the &#201;cole Polytechnique through the &#201;cole des Mines and the &#201;cole Centrale to lesser schools, and you carry the status of your school within you for the rest of your life. I remember that I strongly felt the weight of tradition when I first joined the company. It is true that winds of change were already blowing then, but they were barely noticeable and needed a couple of years before really expressing themselves. But eventually the company changed its culture, and now the company considers itself an international one. I think a deep change has taken place during my 15 years with the company.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;So, anyway, this was the first time I gained experience of the industrial aspect of research. My first task was to examine and synthesize different kinds of adhesion in Saint-Gobain's products and processes. I decided to simultaneously pursue fundamental reflection and a practical approach, helping the factories improve their processes. This was a very instructive experience. I learnt many things although I am not sure that I helped the factories all that much. I certainly learnt for myself that I preferred to stay within R&amp;D and not to progress into production. On the fundamental side, I developed a network of contacts in public labs in France and the US. This became useful later on. After three years in the field, and having created a small research lab, I decided to gain some distance from the practical aspect of my work. It was also obvious to me that fundamental research was required first. Progressively the idea came to me to propose the creation a special laboratory dedicated to the basic aspects of polymer adhesion - and of course also to related issues such as the surface science of glass. But I knew that Saint-Gobain was not ready to have a laboratory for basic science by itself, so my idea was to set up a lab jointly with the CNRS. This was in 1988. From the administrative point of view this was feasible : a number of such joint ventures already existed, an example of which is Rh&#244;ne-Poulenc. Of course I had to convince both Saint-Gobain and the CNRS of the utility of the project which was not straightforward. Although I managed to convince Saint-Gobain in a manner of hours, CNRS needed more prompting.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;AH : &lt;i&gt;Would you explain the nature of Saint-Gobain's research before your proposed laboratory ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;HA : It was a quite common kind of R&amp;D geared towards problem solving. Helping the development of new products and solving problems within production.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;AH : &lt;i&gt;So the research agenda was driven by questions arising out of production ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;HA : Yes, and my idea was to get a more fundamental understanding of the questions which would enable us to help with such questions in a much better way.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;span class='spip_document_151 spip_documents spip_documents_center'&gt;
&lt;img src='https://www.sho.espci.fr/sites/www.sho.espci.fr/local/cache-vignettes/L395xH400/Arribart-figure2-saint-gobain-57e26.jpg?1737513141' width='395' height='400' alt=&#034;&#034; /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;h2 class=&#034;spip&#034;&gt;Figure 1. Saint-Gobain Recherche, Paris&lt;/h2&gt;
&lt;p&gt;At Saint-Gobain I had to sell the idea primarily to the Vice-President of R&amp;D. He took the decision just before retiring. The CNRS process was more complex. It has a democratic organization where decisions are taken by committees. The members consist of both elected researchers and individuals named by the Ministry of Research. They are divided up into different scientific sections. So here I had to convince a diverse group of people, and not just one person, as at Saint-Gobain. As I mentioned, I had developed a network of relationships in the fields of adhesion and surface science and now this turned out to be useful. I knew that many people approved of my research agenda. My project was accepted without much fanfare, but it still took a while because of the administrational hoops that a proposal has to jump through within the CNRS. They meet only twice a year, and every decision has to be validated by the CNRS directors and so on. It took maybe 12 months. The laboratory started on January 1, 1990. But there was only a building and neither instruments nor people.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;span class='spip_document_152 spip_documents spip_documents_center'&gt;
&lt;img src='https://www.sho.espci.fr/sites/www.sho.espci.fr/local/cache-vignettes/L400xH300/Arribart-fig-3_Saint-Gobain_CNRS-647d6.jpg?1737513141' width='400' height='300' alt=&#034;&#034; /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;h2 class=&#034;spip&#034;&gt;Figure 2. Joint lab : Saint-Gobain Recherche &amp; CNRS&lt;/h2&gt;&lt;blockquote class=&#034;spip&#034;&gt;
&lt;p&gt; The three yellow arrows point to the units of the joint lab within the Saint-Gobain Recherche building.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/blockquote&gt;
&lt;p&gt;In the meantime I conferred with scientists in many other labs trying to recruit people. Of course the CNRS could not order people to go, so I had to entice scientists away. I estimated that I needed three scientists from the CNRS in addition to three scientists from Saint-Gobain. Two of the latter had already worked with me, and they followed me to the new project. A further researcher came from somewhere else &#8211; it was a young Chinese woman. We also had two or three technicians and some PhD students. Altogether, it took a year or so to gather everyone together. We also had to buy instruments and the process of getting the laboratory shipshape lasted altogether something like 2 years. We began to actually do some research in late 1990. And from then on the activities progressed rapidly. In two to three years we reached a plateau of 20 people, a level that had been stipulated by the CNRS. A third of the people had come from the CNRS, a third from Saint-Gobain, with PhD students constituting the last third.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;AH : &lt;i&gt;Where did they come from ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;HA : The latter were doing industrial PhDs (Contrat &#224; Dur&#233;e D&#233;termin&#233;e) with Saint-Gobain, and their salary came jointly from the French Ministry of Research and from Saint-Gobain. Of the entire staff, about half each came from chemistry and physics. It was crucial that we develop knowledge and expertise in both these fields. Later we also developed an interest in mechanical problems.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;span class='spip_document_153 spip_documents spip_documents_center'&gt;
&lt;img src='https://www.sho.espci.fr/sites/www.sho.espci.fr/local/cache-vignettes/L400xH300/Arribart-fig4-SPM-7b31b.jpg?1737513141' width='400' height='300' alt=&#034;&#034; /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;h2 class=&#034;spip&#034;&gt;Figure 3. The SPM from Park Scientif Instrument&lt;/h2&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;AH : &lt;i&gt;What was the instrumentation ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;HA : There was a conjunction of the beginning of our lab with the very early days of scanning probe microscopy. This new kind of instrumentation offered a very exciting opportunity. There was a risk in this. We purchased the first Atomic Force Microscope (AFM) ever in France. We bought it from Park Scientific Instruments. Later we built the first AFM for UHV purposes. There were many people then who thought the instrument had no future, so it was a risk to invest time and money in it.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;AH : &lt;i&gt;Why did people think it had no future ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;HA : The objection was that it was not clear that atomic resolution could actually be achieved with the AFM. It was not until 1993 that Binnig showed true atomic resolution.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;AH : &lt;i&gt;Well, yes, but before he had claimed to achieve atomic resolution. In 1993 he only claimed that so far he had been mistaken and only in 1993 did he achieve true resolution. Is that not right ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;HA : Yes. But in 1993 the community was convinced. The reason I did not hesitate was that atomic resolution was not actually the big issue for our purposes. Even a resolution of 1 nanometer amounted to a great deal. Much could be done with such a resolution in the field of adhesion, and also in fracture mechanics and surface chemistry.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;AH : &lt;i&gt;I have the impression that since 1995 or so many people argue that atomic resolution is not really that important, and that in the early 1990s it was still considered the holy grail. So you were unusual in that you had this attitude so early ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;HA : You are right that atomic resolution had a special ring to it in those days.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;AH : &lt;i&gt;Did you emphasize the issue of atomic resolution in your application to the CNRS ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;HA : I am not sure. Even today, nobody has achieved atomic resolution in glass. So it would have been a hard sell, also then. The same goes for polymers. And those two were our substances under investigation.&lt;br class='autobr' /&gt;
There is a difference between STM and AFM. They obey two different logics. The STM has remained a tool of basic research, in surface science. The AFM, even early on (and this would be interesting to discuss with Calvin Quate or Gerd Binnig), there was a hope that it could be useful, for example in other fields of science, such as mine, or in technology, such as process control, microelectronics, semiconductors, and so on. Generally speaking, in early phases there are always many people who think that a novelty will never become common. We have to remember that in 1987 or 1988 solid probe microscopes were still big and unwieldy instruments. Of course miniaturization had set in by 1990, but it was a novelty. Only very few people were convinced that the AFM would become so common. Calvin Quate is one of the few. The STM has revolutionized basic research on metals and semiconductors. There was a reaction against it, because surface science was done using diffraction techniques working in reciprocal space. Surface scientists were formed in this mode of research. They resisted the change, feeling that newcomers would enter their field without the kind of abstraction that had hitherto been key to access to the field. Working in ordinary space was too easy ! Of course it has not actually become easy because the instrument has brought its own problems, and there are still people working with diffraction and in reciprocal space. The two complement each other.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;AH : &lt;i&gt;So this is the background against which your decision has to be seen. You went out on a limb.&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;HA : Yes. The beginning of my lab coincided with the first commercial scanning probe microscopes (SPMs). We had to grasp the opportunity.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;AH : &lt;i&gt;How did you know about the AFM ? Was it a very visible instrument at the time ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;HA : No. I knew about it from publications, but in order to actually see an instrument, I had to travel to California - although I guess I could have seen one at IBM Zurich. There was an STM at Marseille, because two physicists there (Salvan and Humbert) had worked at IBM Zurich, and they had brought one back with them. But they had no experience with the AFM. So I went to the US and visited the very few labs with AFM, both academic labs and the start-up companies of PSI [Park Scientific Instruments] and DI [Digital Instruments]. At Stanford University I met Calvin Quate and at UC Santa Barbara I met Paul Hansma.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;AH : &lt;i&gt;Was there a relationship between Paul Hansma and DI ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;HA : I don't remember. But at any rate it was not as close as the one between Quate and Park. I think Park was a former student of Quate's.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;AH : &lt;i&gt;So you purchased an AFM from Park. What about the other kinds of instrumentation you purchased for your lab ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;HA : Yes, we had to get other instruments, partly because it took a long time for the AFM to arrive. I had to go to the US to compare the DI and the Park instruments, and I discussed it with the physicists and chemists in our lab before ordering, and then we had to wait for the delivery &#8211; maybe 4 months or so. We got a 40% discount, because we were the first French customers, and they hoped that we would open the French market for them. I had very good discussions with Quate, and I think he trusted me to be a good advertisement for him in France. I think we paid 400,000 French Francs, so that the catalogue price was in the order of 800,000 French Francs [approximately US$100,000].&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;We bought also an infra-red spectrometer, in order to study molecular grafting on oxides. This we used as a complement to the AFM. And as I said in a previous part of the interview, our approach was to combine the traditional surface science (very clean surfaces) with &#8220;true surfaces&#8221; interacting with the environment. The infra-red spectrometer, XPS (X-ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy), and LEED (Low-Energy Electron Diffraction) were good tools for the traditional surface science approach working in UHV Ultra-High Vacuum). And also HR-EELS (High-Resolution Electron Energy Loss Spectroscopy). Our choice was risky, but it turned out to be correct. Our decision to build bridges between the two approaches was taken in 1992 or 1993. Quite early on in our project we built a surface force apparatus (SFA). It is not at all an AFM &#8211; there is no concept of high resolution, but it is similar in that you can get a direct measurement of the force interacting between two objects only a few &#197;ngstroms apart. The idea is to make the measurement quantitative in order to study whether the interaction is due to van der Waals or electrostatic forces. In fact this project took six years &#8211; not for technical reasons but simply because we had to get the right people.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;AH : &lt;i&gt;Each instrument had its strengths and weaknesses in terms of resolution and the scale of the surface analyzed. And each instrument required special skills. The AFM, for example, requires quite some expertise to disentangle signal from instrumental artifacts, right ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;HA : Yes, artefacts were a real concern at the beginning, when we all had very limited experience. We had to pay much attention in order to ascertain the results.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;AH : &lt;i&gt;Can you explain how one separates signal from artefact ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;HA : There are different kinds of artefact. One that now seems quite natural but was hard to understand then is the tip effect. If the surface under examination has sharper topographic features than the tip, then the tip will be imaged rather than the surface. We had trouble with this kind of artefact. In fact, when studying tin oxide deposits on some substrate we got very nice images that we at first interpreted as small crystals having the similar orientation. We were very excited to find a growth mechanism of specific orientations on isotropic surfaces such as glass. I decided to present this result at a small meeting in Davos, Switzerland. The topic there was in fact &#8220;The AFM for Technological Applications&#8221;. Famous scientists attended, including Calvin Quate, Jim Gimzewski, and Heinrich Rohrer. There were only some 10 people there, because this was very early, maybe 1991. The night before my presentation, I began to wonder that the result was really too beautiful to be true. I telephoned my lab and asked people there to turn the sample by some angle and do the experiment again. That way, the features should have changed if they belonged to the surface. But they did not, and so we knew that the features belonged to the tip. So I did not present that particular slide in my talk.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;AH : &lt;i&gt;So rotating the sample by some degree is one way of identifying artefacts.&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;HA : Yes, that will eliminate this kind of artefact, the tip effect. There are also adhesion artefacts, some of which have been solved in the meantime thanks to new recording techniques such as the tapping mode.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;AH : &lt;i&gt;Digital Instruments has a patent for the tapping mode, right ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;HA : Yes.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;AH : &lt;i&gt;So the Park instrument that you bought did not have the tapping mode ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;HA : No it did not. The tapping mode did not become available until 1993 or so. Later on, Park Scientific Instruments did do something similar, but they may not call it tapping mode. The DI patent covers the name. And in the straightforward contact mode many artefacts were possible ; for example when looking at soft materials and polymers surface scratches easily occur. If you do that you image the substrate only. One way to identify this effect is to scan again with a smaller tip-surface interaction. In some cases you will find miniature small squares where the surface had been damaged in the course of the first scan. Some artefacts are very common, others are quite specific and harder to identify.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;AH : &lt;i&gt;In what you have explained, the identification of artefacts is internal to the instrument itself. It is not that you can go and compare the results of an AFM scan with those from a different instrument ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;HA : You can change the tip, and you should identify artefacts unless you are very unlucky to get the same tip. Everybody understood that the AFM has great potential not just as an imaging instrument but also to measure adhesion, hardness and so on.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;AH : &lt;i&gt;Using force-distance curves ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;HA : Yes, force-distance curves. This turned out to be very useful for us. For instance in order to understand the electrostatic interaction between oxide and a silicon nitride tip under water. This was original work. For example, in polymer adhesion we checked if it stayed on the substrate and what scratching would do. Of course such ideas were floating around at the time.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;AH : &lt;i&gt;Were you important to the subsequent spread of the AFM in France ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;HA : Yes, people came to our lab. Another lab, at the Institut Curie, that got an AFM at almost the same time. For a while we were a small community but then gradually we grew larger and larger. Yes, we were the pioneers. It was exciting.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;2001-02-20 :&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;HA : I went with one of my sons who was 11 years old at the time to see Park Scientific Instruments. There were no more than 10 people working there, in fact I think it was more like three. It was very small and familial. We discussed and had tea. I enjoyed discussing with these people. It was nothing like an established company.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;AH : &lt;i&gt;What did it look like ? Did they work out of a garage ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;HA : Something like between a home and a garage. It was a small house. Even Digital Instruments started out like this. Already in those days DI, and especially Virgil Elings, was much more commercially aggressive, but they were very small too at the time.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;AH : &lt;i&gt;Did you stay in touch with some of these guys ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;HA : I stayed in touch with Calvin Quate for five or six years, until 1996. After that I lost the contact but he will probably remember me because we had many discussions. It was curious to see his impact upon materials science. In fact it was very difficult for him to get the first paper on the AFM accepted in &lt;i&gt;Physical Review Letters&lt;/i&gt;. Some of it was considered just a pure mechanical profilometer. It had good resolution but it was not really anything new. His project now is very interesting from what I can tell reading his articles in the scientific journals. And he really is a very nice person. Maybe the last time I saw him is when I invited him to give a talk at Saint-Gobain Recherche.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;AH : &lt;i&gt;So you stayed in touch with him in the early 1990s, while you were developing your own AFM. I guess the use of the AFM changed the project from what you had originally envisaged ? Did you continue using all the other tools or did you focus exclusively on the AFM ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;HA : We used the other tools.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;AH : &lt;i&gt;What did you buy for your laboratory ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;HA : Infrared spectrometer, XPS, HR-EELS (High Resolution Electron Energy Loss Spectrometer), LEED. Quite quickly we had three AFMs. I wanted to develop a PSTM working in the infrared but unfortunately that particular project died because the physicist we had working on it left.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;AH : &lt;i&gt;What journals show the history of these instruments best ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;HA : In the beginning it was mainly in the general physics journals such as &lt;i&gt;Applied Physics&lt;/i&gt;, &lt;i&gt;Applied Physics Letters&lt;/i&gt;, &lt;i&gt;Physical Review Letters&lt;/i&gt;, &lt;i&gt;Surface Science&lt;/i&gt;. Now there are specialized journals. A journal like &lt;i&gt;Journal of Scientific Instruments&lt;/i&gt; is not so important in this respect. &lt;i&gt;Langmuir&lt;/i&gt; is also important for soft matter.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;AH : &lt;i&gt;Do any of these journals have review articles ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;HA : I am almost sure that all of them do.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;AH : &lt;i&gt;We were talking about the various instruments you had in your lab. How did you apply them to your research project ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;HA : The idea was to have two parallel approaches. We were mainly interested in adhesion, molecular grafting and so on. One approach is the classical view of surface science, the ideal surface approach. The other is the REAL surface approach, taking the environment as a part of the system.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;AH : &lt;i&gt;Not working in Ultra-High Vacuum (UHV) ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;HA : Yes. But we were trying to make the two approaches meet.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;AH : &lt;i&gt;So when you started working with the AFM in UHV, the point was to simplify the experiment ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;HA : Yes.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;span class='spip_document_157 spip_documents spip_documents_center'&gt;
&lt;img src='https://www.sho.espci.fr/sites/www.sho.espci.fr/local/cache-vignettes/L396xH297/Arribart-fig5_UHV_chamber-2d9cb.jpg?1737513141' width='396' height='297' alt=&#034;&#034; /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span class='spip_document_158 spip_documents spip_documents_center'&gt;
&lt;img src='https://www.sho.espci.fr/sites/www.sho.espci.fr/local/cache-vignettes/L396xH297/Arribart-fig5bis-uhvchamber-e61cf.jpg?1737513141' width='396' height='297' alt=&#034;&#034; /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;h2 class=&#034;spip&#034;&gt;Figure 4. UHV Chamber et AFM in UHV Chamber&lt;/h2&gt;&lt;blockquote class=&#034;spip&#034;&gt;
&lt;p&gt; If a probe were to be introduced directly into the UHV chamber, it would take days of pumping to achieve UHV. Instead, it is first introduced into an antechamber, whereupon a vacuum is produced there. Only then can walls be opened without reducing the UHV too much. By pushing the rods labelled 1 and 2, the sample is transported in successive stages into the central chamber. Several instruments are attached to the chamber, including an XPS. On the right, an AFM can be discerned in the UHV chamber.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/blockquote&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;AH : &lt;i&gt;How did the various instruments complement each other ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;HA : The spectrometers provided structural information. They give a chemical signature. One point of interest was silver on magnesium oxide. In order to have a simple model of glass we chose to study this problem within pure single crystal. We had the probe in situ in the same UHV chamber where we had the instruments to add the deposition techniques. In the case of silver it was just thermal evaporation. We wanted in situ real-time studies of the atoms arriving upon the substrate, the oxide surface. There were two models in this problem. One was that the atoms remain isolated or form small islands, so that the growth process is two-dimensional, so that you first get a perfect monolayer before a second layer is started upon. The other is that growth is three-dimensional with occasional collapses into flatness. To study this it is of course useful both to look directly and to use diffraction techniques. But in order to understand the process you need to grasp the interaction between the silver and the oxide. And only spectroscopic techniques will help here. We always tried to look at a problem from two differing points of view &#8211; in this case geometrical and chemical.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;AH : &lt;i&gt;You make it sound easy. You just use one tool and you get the topography, and then you use another and you get the chemical composition.&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;HA : Well of course it is not at all easy. It was very difficult because for instance, the STM works very well when you have a smooth surface but when you have corrugation it becomes much more difficult, because this corrugation interferes with the instrument. In spectroscopy you integrate over the size of the beam which is much larger than the surface scanned by the AFM. So you have to do many different experiments to see what effect the temperature has and so on. You also have to model the interaction. This was a little known problem. What is the mechanism of very small silver clusters on magnesium oxide with other silver clusters in the neighborhood ? It was a new problem. So it took time to understand the system.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;AH : &lt;i&gt;What is the measure of success ? It was partly CNRS, so you were under pressure to publish ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;HA : Yes.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;AH : &lt;i&gt;And since it was partly Saint-Gobain you had to get patents ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;HA : We had to do both. It was an interesting exercise in communication. In my position as head of the lab, I could not use the same words, the same way of presenting things when addressing different audiences. From time to time it was necessary to gather the scientific and the industrial people together under one roof.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;AH : &lt;i&gt;And what language did you speak then ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;HA : Fortunately everyone was happy with this lab, so it was not quite so difficult. The conditions were good. Nonetheless your question is quite correct. It was interesting.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;AH : &lt;i&gt;How did you convince Saint-Gobain that this would have a pay-off ? And how did you negotiate long- and short-term goals ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;HA : The short term was a problem. It was not straightforward to plan a new product for the company. The pay-off was very diffuse and difficult to identify. One way of motivating the directors was the argument that we trained very good PhD researchers for Saint-Gobain. And this was not expensive for Saint-Gobain, because they shared all the expenses with CNRS. Up until now this has not been a problem.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;AH : &lt;i&gt;Stanley Whittingham told me that in the last 15 years or so there has been a tremendous shift in company planning towards the short term in industry. Partly this was due to the MBA education and the fanning out of this new generation of business administrators into all nooks and crannies of industry. As a result the long-term disappeared, because everything had to fit into the financial year so that you have something to show to your shareholders.&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;HA : It is true that this has taken hold in industry. We had the good fortune that it was not very developed in Saint-Gobain. But also, the time required for the development of new glass materials just is acknowledged to be greater than that in electronics or informatics. When we start new projects, we are simply not able to show a product six months later. So we are less exposed than people in other fields, but the general development that you alluded to certainly has taken place. Maybe our situation will also change in the future. We may be excessive.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;AH : &lt;i&gt;Has the accountancy changed for you ? Did you have to write annual reports ? And has it changed over the last ten years ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;HA : In general ?&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;AH : &lt;i&gt;Well, for the CNRS I can sort of imagine it. In academia you would specify the number of publications that you have produced and that is the measure. End of story. And that is very simple accountancy. But if you account to a company, keeping in mind the increasing influence of MBAs : did you have to account for your expenses in ever greater detail ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;HA : I do not think there has been such a change in the last decade.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;AH : &lt;i&gt;And do you write annual reports ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;HA : Bi-annual. But I am not in this lab anymore ; I left two years ago.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;AH : &lt;i&gt;Okay, so during the 1990s up until two years ago you wrote biannual reports to the company and in that period the structure of the reports did not change.&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;HA : That is correct.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;AH : &lt;i&gt;Did you have to specify just how much money you spent ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;HA : Yes, but also there, no change took place. And I always reported to the same person within Saint-Gobain. He was basically content with what we did, so it was never critical. It is true, it might have changed with a different person in charge.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;AH : &lt;i&gt;So, how did the instrumentation change throughout the 1990s ? The AFM became commercially available to an ever greater extent, you were able to buy many more things off the shelf. Is that true also of all the other instruments ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;HA : Yes, there are different aspects to your question. We used to build many instruments ourselves, and this was of great use for training. And this has changed. A reason the French PhD has been shortened is that equipment is being bought and not made in-house. That is a general trend. Science is changing as a result, because using a commercial instrument is not the same. When you develop an instrument yourself you know exactly how to get the result. In the specific case of AFM/STM : probably the AFM has been developed much more than the STM. In the STM the major breakthrough was with the driver and that was quite early. I think it was possible to purchase an STM driver already by 1992. Variable temperature was a little more difficult, but it was certainly available by 1994. Different ways of scanning and acquiring information were developed. Otherwise the evolution was purely technical : cheaper, and more diverse (such as an STM expressly for electrochemical research). By contrast the AFM has developed rapidly. Tapping mode and other modes where you measure not only the distance but also hardness, conductivity, adhesion, chemistry. It has become possible to map all these parameters. This explains why more and more people use the AFM.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;AH : &lt;i&gt;It has also become cheaper, right ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;HA : Yes.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;AH : &lt;i&gt;It has certainly become more user-friendly, adaptable to different circumstances.&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;HA : Yes. For the STM : there have very beautiful studies made of the coupling between tunneling and modulation. You might modulate the tunneling current with light for instance. You can even leverage the spin of the tunneling electrons. So you can do beautiful physics. But this contributes little to the democratization of the technique.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;AH : &lt;i&gt;I have the sense that Calvin Quate, by contrast, is working hard to increase throughput.&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;HA : Yes, that is right. There can be two reasons for doing that. To make the investigated part of the surface larger &#8211; of use in the semiconductor industry. And to shorten the time required for a scan. He is trying to use the system technologically.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;AH : &lt;i&gt;Okay. Two years ago you left your lab. Your own lab. Why ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;HA : I wanted to try something new and I was lucky to find someone who was well capable of taking over and for whom I have a lot of respect. He is from a different background. So now it is a different group. I became the Scientific Director of Saint-Gobain Recherche. There are two parts to the job ; one is to be the scientific manager, the other is to establish contacts in the outside world, and to promote innovations within the company, for instance with the marketing people.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;AH : &lt;i&gt;You were promoted ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;HA : Yes.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;AH : &lt;i&gt;And you have become slightly removed from lab work ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;HA : Yes, completely, I am now involved in organizational work.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;AH : &lt;i&gt;In fact, our project resembles your job in the sense that we stand back and look at the scientific research and try to gain a perspective ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;HA : Yes, you could say that.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;i&gt;Fin de l'enregistrement&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;hr class=&#034;spip&#034; /&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Pour citer l'entretien :&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&#171; Entretien avec Herv&#233; Arribart &#187;, par Arne Hessenbruch, 19 f&#233;vrier, 29 mai et 20 f&#233;vrier 2001, &lt;i&gt;Sciences : histoire orale&lt;/i&gt;, &lt;a href='https://www.sho.espci.fr/spip.php?article47' class=&#034;spip_in&#034;&gt;/spip.php ?article47&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
		&lt;div class='rss_ps'&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Pour citer l'entretien :&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&#171; Entretien avec Herv&#233; Arribart &#187;, par Arne Hessenbruch, 19 f&#233;vrier, 29 mai et 20 f&#233;vrier 2001, &lt;i&gt;Sciences : histoire orale&lt;/i&gt;, &lt;a href='https://www.sho.espci.fr/spip.php?article47' class=&#034;spip_in&#034;&gt;https://sho.spip.espci.fr/spip.php?article47&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Lieu : dans le salon (les 19 f&#233;vrier et 29 mai 2001) et dans la petite salle de r&#233;union (le 20 f&#233;vrier 2001) du &lt;i&gt;Dibner Institute&lt;/i&gt;, Etats-Unis.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Support : enregistrement sur cassette.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href='https://www.sho.espci.fr/spip.php?article72' class=&#034;spip_in&#034;&gt;Transcription&lt;/a&gt; : &lt;a href='https://www.sho.espci.fr/spip.php?article5' class=&#034;spip_in&#034;&gt;Arne Hessenbruch&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&#201;dition en ligne : &lt;a href='https://www.sho.espci.fr/spip.php?article79' class=&#034;spip_in&#034;&gt;Sophie Jourdin&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href='https://www.sho.espci.fr/spip.php?article6' class=&#034;spip_in&#034;&gt;Sacha Loeve&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;
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